¿Pueden las barreras ayudar en la prevención del VIH?

¿por qué los métodos de barrera?

Los métodos de barrera son relativamente bajos en costo, de fácil acceso y juegan un papel importante en la prevención de embarazos y de Enfermedades de Transmisión Sexual (ETS). Las barreras físicas (como el diafragma, el condón, etc.) son efectivas para la prevención de embarazos y algunas de ellas para la prevención del VIH/ETS; las barreras químicas (espermicidas) previenen primordialmente el embarazo. Los métodos hormonales anticonceptivos (la pastilla, etc.) no se incluyen en ésta categoría de métodos de barrera. Durante siglos, la gente ha utilizado con éxito las barreras físicas.¹ Desde el inicio de la epidemia del VIH el condón de látex para hombres ha sido el instrumento exclusivo para la prevención. Dos décadas mas tarde, se hace un llamado para crear una mayor selección de métodos de barrera para combatir el VIH. Dado el continuo incremento en las tasas de infección por VIH entre mujeres y entre hombres que tienen sexo con hombres (HSH),^2,3 es necesario fortalecer los programas actuales para el uso del condón y crear otros métodos de barrera que optimicen el uso y las opciones en la prevención.

¿qué métodos están disponibles?

Actualmente, tanto el condón femenino (Reality) como el masculino son utilizados para prevenir VIH/ETS y embarazos no deseados.^4,5 El condón femenino, hecho a base de plástico poliuretano, también es utilizado en las relaciones anales receptivas a pesar de no haber sido diseñado para ese propósito.⁶ La esponja, el diafragma y el capuchón cervical son a menudo utilizados con espermicidas y bloquean el cuello del útero para impedir la concepción. A pesar de que los estudios han demostrado que los métodos que bloquean el cuello del útero (cerviz) pueden a su vez prevenir algunas ETS⁷, no hay investigaciones que demuestren que previenen el VIH. Las barreras dentales son unas películas de látex utilizadas para en el sexo oral-anal y oral-vaginal. Los espermicidas (gelatinas, cremas, espumas o películas que se introducen en la vagina) asisten en la prevención de embarazos. Uno de los espermicidas más utilizados, el Nonoxynol 9 (N-9), recientemente se sometió a estudios para comprobar su efectividad respecto al VIH. Un estudio con trabajadoras sexuales en Tailandia, Sudáfrica, Costa de Marfil y Benin; asignó aleatoriamente quienes usarían 5.5 mg de N-9 y quienes usarían un placebo – la crema vaginal humectante “Replens.” Los resultados preliminares demostraron que hubo una mayor cantidad de nuevas infecciones entre el grupo que usó el N-9 que entre el grupo del placebo.⁸ En Agosto del 2000, el CDC hizo una recomendación en contra del uso de N-9 como único método para prevenir el VIH.⁹ Este mismo estudio documentó los efectos dañinos de una dosis relativamente alta de N-9 sobre la infección del VIH. El N-9 se utiliza como lubricante de condones en escalas mucho menores. El impacto de dosis en baja escala aún se desconoce.

¿por qué necesitamos métodos alternos al condón masculino?

Los condones masculinos son muy eficaces para prevenir VIH/ETS y embarazos. Generalmente lo que limita la efectividad de los condones son fallas por parte del usuario más que las del producto mismo. Por ejemplo, el colocarse el condón después de haber iniciado el contacto genital, el no desenrollarlo totalmente, ó el no usarlo en todo acto sexual son fallas. Algunos no usan condones porque les reduce la sensibilidad, otros los consideran un obstáculo para la intimidad. Los condones masculinos requieren de la negociación con el hombre para su uso. Las opciones controladas por mujeres o parejas receptoras pueden ser utilizadas en situaciones en las que la negociación del uso de condón se dificulta, como en las relaciones de abuso, donde las cuestiones económicas, como costo del condón, son un pretexto para no usarlo¹⁰ o cuando la pareja que penetra se rehusa a usarlo⁵. Los métodos de prevención del VIH/ETS controlados por la mujer ofrecen una forma de autopoder¹¹ y son vitales dado el incremento de mujeres infectadas por la epidemia del VIH, especialmente en los países en vías de desarrollo. Finalmente, no existe un método de barrera que le permita a la mujer protegerse del VIH y al mismo tiempo poder embarazarse. El que se desarrolle un método que separe el control de la natalidad de la prevención de ETS es una consideración importante para muchas mujeres.²

¿cuáles son los obstáculos ?

Los métodos de barrera pueden ofrecer protección contra el VIH/ETS, sin embargo no son una alternativa para todo mundo. A pesar del bajo costo de algunos métodos, los precios de otros no son tan accesibles (como el de los condones femeninos). La mayoría de los métodos de barrera requieren ser aplicados antes de cada acto sexual, lo cual dificulta el uso constante. Es posible que no protejan en contra de aquellas ETS que se transmiten por medio del contacto con la piel como el herpes y el Virus del Papiloma Humano (VPH). Los productos que resultan complicados o que requieren de cierta limpieza o almacenamiento, se vuelven inaccesibles para algunas personas. Las barreras que se introducen en la vagina requieren de que la persona se familiarice con su cuerpo y sienta cómoda haciéndolo. Con el diafragma y el capuchón cervical es un médico quien debe tomar la medida adecuada para cada persona. Algunas personas son sensibles a ciertos químicos ó materiales, como quienes presentan alergias al latex. Estas limitaciones se están considerando para el desarrollo de nuevas barreras.

¿qué son los microbicidas?

Los microbicidas son barreras químicas de aplicación tópica para prevenir la transmisión del VIH/ETS que aún se encuentran en proceso de desarrollo y bajo pruebas de ensayo para asegurar su eficacia como método alterno. Quizá serán presentados en forma de gelatinas, cremas, espumas o películas para introducirse en la vagina o el recto. Las investigaciones se están enfocando en crear productos que destruyan o inmovilicen gérmenes o virus por medio de mecanismos como romper las membranas externas de las células de los patógenos, o proveer un recubrimiento a las paredes de la vagina o el recto, ó inhibir la inserción del VIH en las células, lo que previene la reproducción del mismo. Los estudios han demostrado que existe una demanda potencial de microbicidas a nivel nacional y mundial para las mujeres. Estudios realizados con mujeres y con HSH demostraron que hay personas dispuestas a participar en estudios clínicos para probar la eficacia de estos productos.

¿qué se está haciendo?

Actualmente, el condón masculino es el método de prevención más completo que existe. Deben continuar las campañas de prevención en las que se optimice el uso del condón mientras se consiguen otras alternativas. Las labores de prevención podrían ser más efectivas para ciertas poblaciones si se incluyera el tema del condón y del VIH en las campañas de prevención de embarazos y ETS. Algunas clínicas de ETS y de planificación familiar promueven con mucho éxito el uso del condón para prevenir el VIH/ETS. Se están investigando nuevos métodos de barrera como los diafragmas deshechables, alternativas de escudos cervicales, capuchones, esponjas y condones femeninos y masculinos. También se están desarrollando nuevos materiales incluyendo varias clases de plástico y silicón.2 De igual importancia es examinar el potencial para adaptar y probar productos ya existentes en la prevención del VIH; los cuales al ya haber sido aprobados por la FDA (Food and Drug Administration) no tendrían un proceso tan largo de pruebas.

¿cuáles son los próximos pasos?

Desarrollar métodos de barrera alternos debe ser la prioridad entre científicos públicos y privados. Con más de 50 microbicidas en vías de investigación quizá uno saldrá al mercado para el 2005. Los grupos que han sido claves en la lucha para despertar el interés y atención por los microbicidas deben continuar abogando por tener métodos de barrera accesibles. A pesar de que el gobierno Estadounidense incrementó los fondos destinados a los microbicidas, en el año fiscal 1998 el porcentaje para la investigación de éstos fue sólo del 1% del presupuesto de los Institutos Nacionales de Salud de Investigación de SIDA La solución para prevenir el SIDA y las ETS no es sencilla. La prevención requiere un trabajo continuo a muchos niveles incluyendo aumentar el acceso a los productos y desarrollar alternativas para la prevención y tratamientos más fuertes. Los métodos de barrera son una parte integral de estos métodos de prevención alternos y deben desarrollarse a su máxima capacidad.

¿quién lo dice? 1. Feldblum P, Joanis C. Modern barrier methods: effective contraception and disease prevention. Family Health International. 1994. 2. The Population Council and International Family Health. The case for microbicides: a global priority . 2000. 3. Microbicides: a new weapon against HIV. American Foundation for AIDS Research (AmFAR) Report. www.amfar.org . 4. Pinkerton SD, Abramson PR. Effectiveness of condoms in preventing HIV transmission . Social Science and Medicine. 1997;44:1303-1312. 5. Elias CJ, Coggins C. Female-controlled methods to prevent sexual transmission of HIV . AIDS. 1996;3:S43-51. 6. Gibson S, McFarland W, Wohlfeiler D, et al. Experiences of 100 men who have sex with men using the REALITY condom for anal sex . AIDS Education and Prevention. 1999;11:65-71. 7. Rosenberg MJ, Davidson AJ, Chen JH, et al. Barrier contraceptives and sexually transmitted diseases in women: a comparison of female-dependent methods and condoms . American Journal of Public Health. 1992; 82:669-674. 8. UNAIDS. Nonoxynol-9 not effective microbicide, trial shows. Search continues for effective product, UNAIDS chief says. UNAIDS Press Release, June 13, 2000. Gayle H. Dear Colleague. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. August 4, 2000. 10. Abdool Karim Q, Abdool Karim SS, Soldan K, et al. Reducing the risk of HIV infection among South African sex workers: socioeconomic and gender barriers . American Journal of Public Health. 1995;85:1521-1525. 11. Gollub EL. The female condom: tool for women’s empowerment . American Journal of Public Health. 2000;90:1377-1381. 12. Heise L. Topical microbicides: new hope for STI/HIV prevention. Center for Health and Gender Equity (CHANGE). Takoma Park, MD. 13. Darroch JE, Frost JJ. Women’s interest in vaginal microbicides . Family Planning Perspectives. 1999;31:16-23 14. Hammet TR, Mason TH, Joanis CL, et al. Acceptability of formulations and application methods for vaginal microbicides among drug-involved women: results of product trials in three cities . Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 2000;27:119-126. 15. Gross M, Buchbinder SP, Celum C, et al. Rectal microbicides for U.S. gay men: are clinical trials needed? Are they feasible? Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 1998;39:55-61. 16. Kamb ML, Fishbein M, Douglas JM Jr, et al. Efficacy of risk-reduction counseling to prevent human immunodeficiency virus and sexually transmitted diseases: a randomized controlled trial. Project RESPECT Study Group . Journal of the American Medical Association. 1998;280:1161-1167. 17. Harrison PF. A new model for collaboration: the alliance for microbicide development . International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 1999;67:S39-S53.

Preparado por Beth Freedman, MPH, Nancy Padian, PhD, CAPS/ARI Traducción: Romy Benard-Rodríguez, Revisión: Maricarmen Arjona, CAPS Abril 2001. Fact Sheet #39S

What Are HIV Prevention Needs of Adults Over 50?

Are older adults at risk?

Yes. Over 10% of all new AIDS cases in the US occur in people over the age of 50.¹ In the last few years, new AIDS cases rose faster in middle age and older people than in people under 40.² While many of these AIDS cases are the result of HIV infection at a younger age, many are due to becoming infected after age 50. It is difficult to determine rates of HIV infection among older adults, as very few persons over the age of 50 at risk for HIV routinely get tested.³ Most older adults are first diagnosed with HIV at a late stage of infection-when they seek treatment for an HIV-related illness. Cases among older people may be under reported, as HIV symptoms and infections may coincide with other diseases associated with aging, and thus be overlooked. AIDS-related dementia is often misdiagnosed as Alzheimer’s, and early HIV symptoms such as fatigue and weight loss may be dismissed as a normal part of aging.⁴ Older persons with AIDS get sick and die sooner than younger persons. This is due to late diagnosis of the disease as well as co-infection with other diseases that may speed the progression of AIDS. Also, new drugs for HIV treatment may interact with medications the older person is taking to treat pre-existing chronic conditions.

What puts them at risk?

A common stereotype in the US is that older people don’t have sex or use drugs. Very few HIV prevention efforts are aimed at people over 50, and most educational ad campaigns never show older adults, making them an invisible at-risk population.⁶ As a result, older people are generally less knowledgeable about HIV/AIDS than younger people and less aware of how to protect themselves against infection. This is especially true for older injecting drug users, who comprise over 16% of AIDS cases over 50. Men who have sex with men form the largest group of AIDS cases among adults over 50. Older gay men tend to be invisible and ignored both in the gay community and in prevention. Among the HIV risk factors for older gay men are internalized homophobia, denial of risk, alcohol and other substance use, and anonymous sexual encounters.⁷ Women comprise a greater percentage of all AIDS cases as age increases. While 6.1% of all AIDS cases among those aged 50-59 are women, the percentage of cases occurring among women rises to 13.2% for age 60-69 and 28.7% for those 65 and older.⁸ Normal aging changes such as a decrease in vaginal lubrication and thinning vaginal walls can put older women at higher risk for HIV infection during intercourse.⁹

what are barriers to prevention?

Few Americans over age 50 who are at risk for HIV infection either use condoms or get tested for HIV. In a national survey, at-risk people over 50 were one sixth as likely to use condoms and one fifth as likely to have been tested for HIV than at-risk people in their 20s.³ Factors that influence condom use in older persons are not known. Doctors and nurses often do not consider HIV to be a risk for their older patients. A study of doctors in Texas found that most doctors rarely or never asked patients older than 50 years questions about HIV/AIDS or discussed risk factor reduction. Doctors were much more likely to rarely or never ask patients over 50 about HIV risk factors (40%) than they were to never or rarely ask patients under 30 (6.8%).¹⁰ Many older people live in assisted living communities, where there is still great stigma attached to HIV/AIDS, often associated with homosexuality and/or substance abuse. Management may be resistant to providing HIV/AIDS educational materials or presentations in their facilities.

How are older adults different?

Cultural and generational issues need to be considered in crafting HIV prevention efforts. Older persons may not be comfortable disclosing their sexual behaviors or drug use to others. This can make it difficult to find older adults who attend support groups.¹¹ Also, older adults may not view condom use as important or necessary, especially post-menopausal women who need not worry about pregnancy protection. Older adults may have fewer surviving friends and a smaller social network to provide support and care. Also, they are more likely to be caregivers themselves, as about one third of AIDS patients are dependent on an older parent for financial, physical or emotional support.¹²

What’s being done?

Unfortunately, few prevention programs exist that target adults over 50. Most programs for older adults offer support for HIV+ persons, or target clinicians and caregivers of older adults. Promising prevention programs incorporate generational concerns, target high-risk groups such as older gay men and older women (especially recent widows), and involve older adults in their design and as peer educators. Senior HIV Intervention Project (SHIP) in Florida’s Dade, Broward and Palm Beach Counties, trains older peer educators to present educational and safer sex seminars at retirement communities. Trained AIDS educators meet with health care professionals and aging services workers to help them understand the risk posed to seniors by HIV.¹³ In six regional senior centers in Chicago, IL, a program used peer-led “study circles” to increase HIV awareness and knowledge. Participants viewed a video, “The Forgotten Tenth,” and did their own research as to how HIV affects their lives physically, politically and economically. They then shared their knowledge at the next meetings. After the program many participants became AIDS educators.¹⁴ An HIV education program for older adults was conducted at meal sites in Florida. Based on the Health Belief Model, the program included facts and statistics on older persons and HIV, condom use instruction, HIV testing information, and case studies of older persons with AIDS. After the session, participants reported a significant increase in knowledge about AIDS and perceived susceptibility to HIV.¹⁵

What needs to be done?

There has been a striking lack of interest in people over 50 in HIV prevention efforts. Prevention programs are needed specifically for older adults. Mainstream ad campaigns need to incorporate images and issues concerning persons over 50 and encourage at-risk older adults to be routinely tested for HIV. More research on sexual and drug using behavior of older adults is needed, as well as research on disease progression and treatments, including recruiting HIV+ older persons for clinical trials. Clinicians and service providers for older adults, including care takers and nursing home staff, need to be educated on HIV risk behaviors and symptoms of HIV infection among older adults. Clinicians need to conduct thorough sex and drug use risk assessments with their patients over 50, and challenge any assumptions that older people do not engage in these activities or will not discuss them. Older adults need support and education to ensure that their lives over 50 are as rewarding and safe as before 50. A comprehensive HIV prevention strategy uses many elements to protect as many people at risk for HIV as possible. Adults over 50 are an especially important group to target with prevention messages, both for their own risk behaviors, and for their role as leaders and teachers of younger generations.

Says who?

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report . 1996;8:15. 2. HIV, AIDS, and older adults . Fact sheet prepared by the National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health. 3. Stall R, Catania J. AIDS risk behaviors among late middle-aged and elderly Americans. The National AIDS Behavioral Surveys . Archives of Internal Medicine. 1994;154:57-63. 4. Whipple B, Scura KW. The overlooked epidemic: HIV in older adults . American Journal of Nursing. 1996;96:22-28. 5. Skiest DJ, Rubinstien E, Carley N, et al. The importance of comorbidity in HIV-infected patients over 55: a retrospective case-control study . American Journal of Medicine. 1996;101:605-611. 6. Feldman MD. Sex, AIDS, and the elderly . Archives of Internal Medicine. 1994;154:19-20. 7. Grossman AH. At risk, infected, and invisible: older gay men and HIV/AIDS . Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care. 1995;6:13-19. 8. Ship JA, Wolff A, Selik RM. Epidemiology of acquired immune deficiency syndrome in persons aged 50 years or older . Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 1991;4:84-88. 9. Catania JA, Turner H, Kegeles SM, et al. Older Americans and AIDS: transmission risks and primary prevention research needs . Gerontologist. 1989;29:373-381. 10. Skiest DJ, Keiser P. Human immunodeficiency virus infection in patients older than 50 years. A survey of primary care physicians’ beliefs, practices, and knowledge . Archives of Family Medicine. 1997;6:289-294. 11. Nokes K, ed. HIV/AIDS and the older adult . Washington DC: Taylor & Francis;1996. 12. Ory MG, Zablotsky D. Notes for the future: research, prevention, care, public policy. In MW Riley, MG Ory, D Zablotsky, eds. AIDS In an Aging Society. New York, NY: Springer Publishing; 1989. 13. Senior HIV Intervention Project (SHIP). Contact: Lisa Agate (954) 467-4774. 14. Dill D, Huston W. AIDS education for older adults. Healthpro UIC. 1996;Fall:18-19. Contact: Rita Strombeck, HealthCare Education Associates (760) 323-4032. 15. Rose MA. Effect of an AIDS education program for older adults . Journal of Community Health Nursing. 1996;13:141-148. Contact: Molly Rose (215) 503-7567. Resources: NY HIV Over 50 Task Force Brookdale Center on Aging Hunter College 425 E 25th Street New York, NY 10010 (212) 481-7594.

• Contact: Kathy Nokes [email protected]

American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) Social Outreach and Support (SOS) 601 E Street, NW Washington, DC 20049 (202) 434-2260 http://www.aarp.org National Association on HIV Over Fifty (NAHOF) Midwest AIDS Training & Education Center University of Illinois 808 S. Wood Street m/c 779 Chicago, IL 60612 (312) 996-1426 [email protected] National Institute on Aging https://www.nia.nih.gov/

Prepared by Pamela DeCarlo* and Nathan Linsk, PhD** *CAPS, **National Association on HIV Over 50, Midwest AIDS Training & Education Center September 1997. Fact Sheet #29E

Reproduction of this text is encouraged; however, copies may not be sold, and the Center for AIDS Prevention Studies at the University of California San Franciso should be cited as the source of this information. For additional copies of this and other HIV Prevention Fact Sheets, please call the National AIDS Clearinghouse at 800/458-5231. Comments and questions about this Fact Sheet may be e-mailed to [email protected]. © September 1997, University of California

What are the HIV prevention needs of Mexican immigrants in the US?

Why do Mexicans migrate?

The most common motivation for Mexicans to move to the US is economic, followed by a desire to reunite with spouses, parents or other immediate family, particularly among women and children. However, for some an additional important reason to leave Mexico is the need to find a new social space where they can redefine their sexual and gender identities.^1,2 This phenomenon–labeled “sexual migration”–is known to happen among Mexican women and among men who are sexually attracted to other men (MSM). Sexual migration is of particular interest in terms of HIV risk. Contrary to what is often assumed, the population of Mexicans who move to the US is considerably diverse. Mexicans are from cities and rural areas, poor and middle-class, undocumented and legal immigrants, monolingual and bilingual. Some emigrate permanently or come for a short period and then return to Mexico.

Who is at risk for HIV infection?

There are an estimated 3 to 6 million Mexican undocumented residents in the US, and most of them live in California and Texas.³ Many Mexicans frequently travel back and forth over the border. One-fourth of the AIDS cases in Mexico are among persons who have spent prolonged periods in the US.⁴ AIDS statistics in Mexico report a slight trend toward the “ruralization” of AIDS that might be linked to male migration to the US.⁵ The limited data on HIV infection in Mexicans living in the US suggests that the groups that have been most greatly affected are MSM, heterosexuals-some of whom have injecting drug user (IDU) partners-and IDUs. Of the US AIDS cases reported in 2000 among persons born in Mexico, 44% were among MSM, 14% among heterosexuals, 9% among IDUs, and 3% among MSM IDUs.⁶ The cause of transmission was not known for 29% of cases.

What puts them at risk?

Different subgroups of Mexicans living in the US confront different challenges in terms of HIV risk. Among other factors, such challenges depend on 1) how their identities and behaviors (sexual and drug-related) change after moving to the US; 2) their access to health services, appropriate HIV education, and condoms; 3) norms about safe sex and drug use in their new communities; 4) the nature of their relationships with sexual partners in the US and in Mexico; and 5) the degree to which they experience racism, discrimination, and poverty in the US. One study of 374 young Latino MSM in the San Diego/Tijuana region found high rates of HIV: 19% in Tijuana, Mexico and 35% in San Diego, CA.⁷ In Tijuana, only half had ever received HIV prevention information and less than half had ever been tested for HIV. Young MSM in Tijuana were more likely to report sex with females and injection drug use than young MSM in San Diego. In San Diego, young MSM were more likely to report unprotected sex with men. HIV risk also exists among heterosexual Mexican migrants, especially among male urban day laborers and those working in agriculture. Often these men come without a spouse and are young, lonely, and isolated, making them likely to seek sex. In addition, they often are not well educated, speak little English, and have limited access to healthcare, making it difficult for them to receive HIV prevention messages⁸. Some of these men engage in sex work, regularly have unprotected sex with female sex workers, or have spouses in Mexico with whom they use no condoms.⁹ Many married Mexican women, whether they are living in the US or in border towns, or living in Mexico with a spouse who migrates to the US, believe strongly in marital fidelity and have negative beliefs about condom use. In one study, many women acknowledged that men who spend long periods of time away from home are at risk for HIV, but most believed that it did not pertain to their marriages or their spouses.¹⁰ Both younger and older women said they did not want to know about any extra-marital affairs their spouses may have had, and did not want to infer infidelity by using condoms.

Does acculturation affect HIV risk?

Research is somewhat contradictory about whether HIV risk increases or decreases as immigrants adopt norms and values of mainstream communities in the US. Some studies argue that acculturation is protective because it promotes individuality, self-esteem and self-empowerment. Others argue that acculturation increases HIV risk because immigrants adopt sexual and drug-related behaviors that were not part of their more conservative, previous worldviews. What is clear is that immigrants change over time in the US, that the changes are complex, and that they have to be taken into account when designing HIV prevention programs for immigrant populations.

What’s being done?

Few HIV prevention programs for Mexican immigrants currently exist, although the number of programs is increasing. In addition, cooperation between the Mexican and American governments in addressing HIV/AIDS has increased. In San Francisco, CA, Hermanos de Luna y Sol has been designed to address the HIV prevention needs of Latin American MSM who have migrated to the US. The program deals with the common history of oppression among Latino gay men, social support, and community and emotional issues around sex and sexuality. This program explicitly ties HIV prevention to other developmental and identity-related needs in ways that contextualize safe sex in the participants’ larger lives. In El Paso, TX, prevention case management services (PCMS) are provided in a large homeless shelter serving undocumented immigrants. PCMS uses a holistic approach to address homelessness, being HIV+, an IDU, a sex worker, or a partner of any of the above. The program concentrates on survival needs first, providing referrals for housing, food banks and medical and mental health treatment. PCMS also locates clinics to give free Pap smears to undocumented women. The Promotoras de Salud Project, sponsored by the Farmworker Justice Fund and Centro de Salud Familiar la Fe, trains farmworker women as health educators or promotoras to provide counseling and education about HIV prevention, care and services in their communities. The promotoras link farmworker women with healthcare facilities, often accompanying the women and interpreting for them. They also provide condoms and emotional support for women using them.

What needs to be done?

Prevention programs for immigrant Mexicans need to contextualize HIV risk in the lives of participants in order to ensure that potential safety measures are relevant and that participants can strategize realistic ways of adopting them. Programs should address the challenges of being a Mexican immigrant living in the US; experiences of racism and homophobia; and barriers that may be imposed by poverty and social marginality. These factors may influence sexual and drug-related behaviors. In addition to prevention programs in US cities with large concentrations of Mexicans, such as Los Angeles, CA and Chicago, IL, border cities such as Ciudad Juárez and Tijuana, Mexico, El Paso, TX, and San Diego, CA are key locations for HIV prevention efforts. Similarly, there is a need for programs focusing on rural areas that attract Mexican migrant workers. Access to basic needs such as healthcare, housing, and jobs, may help reduce HIV risk in Mexican immigrant populations. Culturally-relevant educational and training materials in Spanish, as well as educational programs tailored for the needs of specific subgroups of immigrants, are also needed. HIV surveillance must be improved to understand the scope of HIV among both documented and undocumented immigrants. Because many Mexicans travel back and forth between the US and Mexico, bi-national cooperation is key in addressing these issues. Fostering participation of Mexican immigrants in HIV Prevention Community Planning is key to further identifying effective prevention interventions, and to expanding funding and availability of prevention services for this population.

Says who?

1. Hogdagneu-Sotelo P. Gendered transitions: Mexican experiences of immigration. University of California Press: Berkeley, CA, 1994. 2. Cantú, L. Border crossings: Mexican men and the sexuality of migration. Doctoral Dissertation. University of California, Irvine, 1999. 3. Lowell BL, Suro R. How many undocumented: the numbers behind the US-Mexico migration talks. Report by the Pew Hispanic Center. March 2002 4. Rangel G, Lozada R. Factores de riesgo de infección por VIH en migrantes mexicanos: el caso de los migrantes que llegan a la Casa del Migrante “Centro Escalabrini y Ejército de Salvación. El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, ISESALUD/COMUSIDA. 5. Magis-Rodríguez C et al. La situación del SIDA en México a finales de 1998. Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiológicas. 1998; 18, 6: 236-244. 6. CDC. HIV AIDS Surveillance Report. 2001. Volume 12, No.2 https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/library/reports/hiv-surveillance-archive.html.Ruiz JD. HIV prevalence, risk behaviors and access to case among young Latino MSM in San Diego, California, and Tijuana, Mexico. Presented at the Binational Conference on HIV/AIDS. Oakland, CA, 2002. 8. Bronfman N, Moreno L. Perspectives on HIV/AIDS prevention among immigrants on the US-Mexico border. In: Mishra S, Conner R, Magaña R (eds) AIDS crossing borders: The spread of HIV among migrant Latinos. Westview Press: Boulder, CO, 1996. 49-76. 9. Organista KC, Organista PB. Migrant laborers and AIDS in the United States: A review of the literature. AIDS Education and Prevention. 1997; 9:83-93. 10. Hirsch JS, Higgins J, Bentley ME, et al. The social constructions of sexuality: marital infidelity and sexually transmitted disease-HIV risk in a Mexican migrant community. American Journal of Public Health. 2002; 92:1227-1237 11. Flaskerud JH, et al. Sexual practices, attitudes, and knowledge related to HIV transmission in low income Los Angeles Hispanic women. The Journal of Sex Research. 1996: 33:343-353. 12. Marín BV, Flores E. Acculturation, sexual behavior, and alcohol use among Latinas. International Journal of the Addictions. 1994; 29:1101-1114 13. Díaz RM. Latino gay men and HIV. New York and London: Routledge. 1998. prevention.ucsf.edu/uploads/projects/hlsindex.php 14. Moore EF. Sub-culturally competent HIV prevention case management on the Mexican-American border. Presented at the National AIDS Prevention Conference, Atlanta, GA. 1999. Abs#659. 15. Hernández A. Promovision/ USMBHA: Proyecto para fortaleces la capacidad de la comunidad en la prevención del VIH/SIDA. Presented at the United States-Mexico Border Health Association (USMBHA) Conference, Las Cruces, New Mexico. 2001. https://www.hhs.gov/about/agencies/oga/about-oga/what-we-do/international-relations-division/americas/border-health-commission/index.html  16. US-Mexico Border Health Association. The State of Latinos in HIV Prevention Community Planning. 2002.  Prepared by Héctor Carrillo, DrPH and Pamela DeCarlo, CAPS April 2003. Fact Sheet #48E Special thanks to the following reviewers of this Fact Sheet: María Chaparro, Frank Galvan, Apolonia Hernández, Barbara Marin, Octavio Vallejo.

Reproduction of this text is encouraged; however, copies may not be sold, and the Center for AIDS Prevention Studies at the University of California San Franciso should be cited as the source of this information. For additional copies of this and other HIV Prevention Fact Sheets, please call the National Prevention Information Network at 800/458-5231. Comments and questions about this Fact Sheet may be e-mailed to [email protected]. © April 2003, University of California

How does stigma affect HIV prevention and treatment?

Prepared by Pamela DeCarlo and Maria Ekstrand, PhD Community Engagement (CE) Core | October 2016

What is HIV/AIDS stigma?

HIV-related stigma is a significant problem globally.  HIV stigma inflicts hardship and suffering on people living with HIV and interferes with research, prevention, treatment, care and support efforts. HIV-related stigma refers to negative beliefs, feelings and attitudes towards people living with HIV, their families and people who work with them. HIV stigma often reinforces existing social inequalities based on gender, race, ethnicity, class, sexuality and culture. Stigma against many vulnerable populations who are disproportionately affected by HIV (such as the stigma of homosexuality, drug use, poverty, migration, transgender status, mental illness, sex work and racial, ethnic and tribal minority status) predates the epidemic and intersects with HIV stigma, which compounds the stigma and discrimination experienced by people living with HIV (PLWH) who belong to such groups.¹ HIV-related discrimination, also known as enacted HIV stigma, refers to the unfair and unjust treatment of someone based on their real or perceived HIV status. Discrimination also affects family members and friends, caregivers, healthcare and lab staff who care for PLWH. The drivers of HIV-related discrimination usually include misconceptions regarding casual transmission of HIV and pre-existing prejudices against certain populations, behaviors, sex, drug use, illness and death. Discrimination can be institutionalized through laws, policies and practices that unjustly affect PLWH and marginalized groups.¹

How is HIV stigma harmful?

Stigma and discrimination add barriers which weaken the ability of people and communities to protect themselves from HIV and to stay healthy if they are living with HIV. To persons living with HIV. Fear of stigma, discrimination and potential violence, may keep people from disclosing their status to family, friends and sexual partners. This can increase isolation and undermine their ability to access and adhere to treatment, and undermine prevention efforts such as using condoms and not sharing drug equipment. Enacted stigma can result in losing housing and jobs, being ostracized by family, and being treated badly in healthcare facilities, among other effects. To vulnerable populations. The way people experience stigma varies across countries and communities. Stigma discourages people from seeking information and programs, for fear it will make others think they have HIV, are promiscuous or unfaithful, or are members of populations associated with HIV, like people who inject drugs, sex workers and gay men. It can make people less likely to get tested for HIV, use condoms, ask their partners about their status, use clean needles and injection equipment, or access biomedical prevention options such as male circumcision and pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP).

How do people cope with stigma?

Several factors help individuals cope with HIV-related stigma, and respond to feelings of worthlessness, depression, and anger associated with their diagnosis. Many people learn to manage or cope with stigma quite well and have very positive relationships not impacted greatly by stigma, especially if they have supportive family and friends. Social support. For many PLWH, social support can help buffer the impact of any stigma. A study of African American PLWH found many had experienced stigma and discrimination, but the impact was softened by having non-PLWH in their social networks express interest and take the initiative to offer help. Connection with other PLWH gave them an opportunity to share their feelings and to fight for their rights.² A study of young African American men who have sex with men (MSM) found that stigma of racism and homophobia was associated with delayed HIV testing, but that men with peer support tested earlier.³ Adapting and coping. Although it can be difficult for persons in already stigmatized communities to identify as HIV-positive, many PLWH do accept their HIV status and successfully form an identity of being pro-active and choosing to live. Adequate treatment for depression and anxiety, along with acceptance of one’s diagnosis, provide a protective buffer against stigma and promote acceptance of lifelong HIV treatment.⁴

How is HIV stigma addressed?

Stigma exists, and should be targeted at multiple levels: individual, interpersonal (family, friends, social networks), organizational, community and public policy.5 Involving PLWH in the design, creation, implementation and evaluation of stigma reduction programs is critical to success. Individual level Increasing individual knowledge about HIV transmission, prevention and care, as well as access to services and legal rights is important. One study in South Africa found that while some PLWH experienced stigma through insults and arguments with family members during conflict, they knew that disclosing someone’s status without their consent was a crime. In these instances, threatening to go to the police, or sometimes actually calling the police, allowed PLWH to fight back and maintain their self-esteem.⁶ Interpersonal level The We Are Family campaign from Greater Than AIDS and the Georgia Department of Public Health, reinforces the importance of social support for PLWH. The video campaign features a grandmother and her grown son, a college student and his parents, a pastor and his congregation, a recovering addict and his mother, a transgender woman and her sister, and childhood best friends, all supporting one another following an HIV diagnosis.⁷ Organizational level Healthcare providers are often named by PLWH as important sources of stigma.⁸ Programs for training healthcare workers⁹ should address culturally-specific stigma drivers, including personal fears of infection, prejudice towards vulnerable groups, and misconceptions or lack of knowledge about HIV transmission, prevention, treatment and universal precautions.¹⁰ Programs also should address how the effect of stigma, discrimination, breaches of confidentiality and negative attitudes can negatively impact patients’ lives, health, and ability to follow treatment regimens. Biomedical and behavioral approaches to HIV prevention, such as PrEP, routine HIV testing, starting treatment soon after diagnosis (test and treat), and treatment for PLWH to viral suppression, have been successful in the US and several countries in reducing new HIV infections and improving the life and health of PLWH. However, HIV stigma and discrimination can greatly impact the success of these interventions. Stigma surrounding PrEP use, including assumptions about promiscuity, can negatively affect PrEP access and uptake.¹¹ Prejudice among healthcare workers may result in drug users, young adults, women¹² and other marginalized populations not being offered either PrEP or HIV testing. Community level The Let’s Stop HIV Together campaign, launched by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), raises awareness about HIV and its impact on the lives of all Americans, and fights stigma by showing that persons with HIV are real people—mothers, fathers, friends, brothers, sisters, sons, daughters, partners, wives, husbands, and co-workers. The campaign offers facts about HIV, links to testing sites across the US, guidance for taking action against stigma, and online stories about PLWH, and the people who care for them.¹³ Policy level In Ghana, the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice, the Ghana AIDS Commission and the Health Policy Project developed a web-based mechanism for PLWH to report discrimination in employment, health care, education and other areas. Reports can be anonymous, and all reports result in mediation, investigation and legal resolution by human rights and legal organizations.¹⁴

What needs to be done?

Both the US White House and UNAIDS reports recommend focusing on key populations that have high and disproportionate rates of HIV, and are at higher risk for transmitting and acquiring HIV.^1,15 Reducing stigma for other conditions common among persons at risk for or living with HIV—such as substance use, mental health problems, sex work and homelessness—and addressing homophobia are important efforts to improve health outcomes. However, promotion of disclosure of HIV status must be accompanied by protections for PLWH. This calls for a continued commitment to civil rights enforcement.

Says who?

1. UNAIDS. Reduction of HIV-related stigma and discrimination. Guidance Note. 2014. www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2014/ReductionofHIV-relatedstigma… 2. Mosack KE, Stevens PE, Brouwer AM, et al. Shared illness and social support within two HIV-affected African American communities. Qualitative Health Research. 2015 Oct 28. 3. Scott HM, Pollack L, Rebchook GM, et al. Peer social support is associated with recent HIV testing among young black men who have sex with men. AIDS and Behavior. 2014;1:913-920. 4. Katz IT, Ryu AE, Onuegbu AG, et al. Impact of HIV-related stigma on treatment adherence: systematic review and meta-synthesis. Journal of the International AIDS Society. 2013, 16(Suppl 2):18640. 5. Stangl AL, Lloyd JK, Brady LM, et al. A systematic review of interventions to reduce HIV-related stigma and discrimination from 2002 to 2013: how far have we come? Journal of the International AIDS Society. 2013;16(Suppl 2):18734.) 6. Abrahams N, Jewkes R. Managing and resisting stigma: a qualitative study among people living with HIV in South Africa. Journal of the International AIDS Society. 2012;15:17330. 7. We Are Family. www.greaterthan.org/we-are-family-love-saves-lives/ 8. UNAIDS. Key programmes to reduce stigma and discrimination and increase access to justice in national HIV responses. Guidance Note. 2012. https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2012/Key_Human_Rights_Programmes  9. Kidd R and Clay S. Understanding and challenging HIV stigma: Toolkit for action. International Center for Research on Women. 2003. www.icrw.org/publications/understanding-and-challenging-hiv-stigma-tool… 10. Ekstrand ML, Ramakrishna J, Bharat S, et al. Prevalence and drivers of HIV stigma among health providers in urban India: implications for interventions. Journal of International AIDS Society. 2013;16:18717. 11. Calabrese SK, Underhill K. How Stigma Surrounding the Use of HIV Preexposure prophylaxis undermines prevention and pleasure: A call to destigmatize “Truvada whores.” American Journal of Public Health. 2015;105:1960–1964. 12. Auerbach JD, Kinsky S, Brown G, et al. Knowledge, attitudes, and likelihood of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) use among US women at risk of acquiring HIV. AIDS Patient Care and STDs. 2015. 29:102-110. 13. CDC. Let’s Stop HIV Together. www.cdc.gov/actagainstaids/campaigns/lsht/ 14. UNAIDS. On the Fast-Track to end AIDS by 2030: Focus on location and population. 2015. www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2015/FocusLocationPopulation 15. The White House. The National HIV/AIDS Strategy: Updated to 2020. https://www.hiv.gov/federal-response/national-hiv-aids-strategy/nhas-update

Prepared by Pamela DeCarlo and Maria Ekstrand PhD, CAPS *CAPS October 2016 . Special thanks to the following reviewers of this Fact Sheet: Sarah Calabrese, Barbara Green-Ajufo, Cynthia Grossman, William Holzemer, Sebastian Kevany, Daryl Mangosing, Cynthia Tucker. Reproduction of this text is encouraged; however, copies may not be sold, and the University of California San Francisco should be cited as the source. Fact Sheets are also available in Spanish. ©2016, University of CA. Comments and questions about this Fact Sheet may be e-mailed to [email protected].

How can HIV prevention be integrated into health care settings?

Why is HIV prevention important in health care settings?

HIV prevention is an important part of health care for all individuals. It is particularly key for those at risk of becoming infected, as well as for those who are already infected, who can then avoid transmitting HIV to others and stay healthy themselves. Many strategies can be used in health care settings to optimize HIV prevention, including: assessing HIV risk; enhancing access to HIV testing; providing HIV-infected patients with disclosure and partner services; screening and treating patients for problem drinking, drug use and sexually transmitted infections (STIs); and providing the best possible care to HIV-infected individuals including access to anti-retroviral therapy (ARVs) and adherence counseling.

Do health care settings have a role in finding new infections?

Health care settings are important sites for providing access to HIV testing and prevention messages, for finding new infections and for linking infected individuals into HIV care. In 2006, the CDC issued guidelines for primary health care providers suggesting expanded access to HIV testing for all patients 13 to 64 years old.¹ Providing HIV testing as a routine part of care has been most productive in emergency room and labor and delivery settings,^2,3 although community health centers have also provided important new access.⁴ Testing programs have also proven effective in helping pregnant women to not transmit HIV to their babies.³ One key strategy for expanding testing is rapid test technology.⁵ Rapid tests allow providers to perform a test and deliver the results in under an hour, although a confirmatory test is required for positive rapid test results. Appropriate follow-up care can be planned before the patient leaves the health care facility. Especially when HIV testing is newly introduced, providers in health care settings need to learn how to integrate HIV testing into regular care, and to refer patients for additional support services if needed. Providers should also be trained in documenting test results to ensure they are shared with other health care providers and to maintain the confidentiality of client information. Providers must ensure that HIV-infected persons get the care and support they need. Linkage to care is an important and often overlooked piece of integrating HIV testing into health care. Individuals who are just finding out they are infected often need a great deal of help and support to find an HIV provider, to make an appointment and to show up at that appointment. Intensive case management models show promise in enhancing linkages to care for newly-diagnosed individuals.⁶

What other HIV prevention strategies work in health care settings?

Risk assessment. Assessing HIV risk behaviors should be a standard part of new patient intake, regardless of HIV status. In-depth HIV prevention education is not necessary for every patient. However, health care providers should ask all patients about their sexual behavior, condom use, number of sexual partners, and alcohol and illicit drug use to assess a patient’s risk for acquiring or transmitting HIV. These quick questions may lead to longer discussions and counseling about safer sex or alcohol and drug use practices.⁷ Drug treatment. Helping patients get into alcohol or drug treatment can be an effective HIV prevention tool⁸ and can help HIV-infected persons stay healthy. Health care providers can have a profound effect on patients’ lives by showing an interest in drug-using patients and encouraging willing patients to enter drug or alcohol treatment programs. Because relapse is common in treating addictions, health care providers should use a non-judgmental approach. Screening and treating for STIs. Providers should encourage screening for STIs. They should also provide STI education, emphasize the link between HIV and STIs, and encourage screening for partners.⁹

How does positive prevention work in health care settings?

Prevention counseling. Brief prevention counseling delivered in health care settings at every visit has been shown to decrease the likelihood that HIV-infected individuals transmit HIV to others, particularly if interventions are tailored to sub-populations of HIV-infected patients.¹⁰ Important messages include: helping people understand the relative risks of their actions and the effectiveness of different prevention strategies such as using condoms; disclosing HIV status to sex and drug using partners; and understanding their responsibility with regard to prevention. Formal provider training is important to facilitate these approaches.^11,12 Viral suppression. A unique component that health care settings play in HIV prevention is helping HIV-infected persons find and adhere to an effective ARV regimen to help keep their viral load low. Some research has demonstrated that keeping the viral load below a threshold that is detectable with lab tests can help prevent up to 60% of new STIs.¹³ New research suggests that effective detection of HIV and treatment to reduce the viral load could reduce the overall community viral load and have a population-level impact on HIV transmission.¹⁴

How can HIV prevention capacity be increased in health care settings?

Risk assessment. Knowing how to assess risk among patients is key to HIV prevention of any kind. Having risk assessment tools and training providers to use them is critical. Written protocols. It is important to make sure that procedures are in place to guide testing efforts in health care settings.¹⁵ Having a “prevention plan” tailored to the clinic size, the service delivery model, the types of providers and the patient population is critical. Leadership. Successful clinic programs often have identified staff leaders who function as counselors or team leaders for positive prevention.¹⁶ Training. Underlying all of these important components is training. Training can facilitate buy-in from clinic providers and can address provider attitudes and beliefs about risk reduction and counseling.¹⁷ Training should outline staff responsibilities and anticipate changes to clinic flow.¹⁶

What are effective models for use in health care settings?

Positive STEPs¹⁷ is a training intervention to help HIV care providers deliver prevention counseling to their patients. The model was effective in improving provider attitudes, comfort, self-efficacy and frequency of delivering prevention counseling. Partnership for Health¹⁸ is an EBI (CDC’s Effective Behavioral Intervention) for providers in HIV clinics. Medical providers are trained to deliver brief risk-reduction counseling to their patients. All clinic staff are trained to integrate prevention messages into the clinic setting, and counseling is supplemented with written information for all patients. The intervention was effective in reducing unprotected intercourse by 38% among patients who had two or more sexual partners. Positive Choice¹⁹ is an interactive “Video Doctor.” Patients at HIV clinics completed an in-depth computerized risk assessment and received tailored risk-reduction counseling from a “Video Doctor” via laptop computer and a printed educational worksheet. Providers received a Cueing Sheet on reported risks for discussion during the clinical encounter. Provider-Delivered Counseling.^10,16 In a large federal demonstration project, brief counseling messages delivered by primary care providers in clinic settings were most effective in reducing risk among HIV-infected patients, although there were also benefits in programs delivered by prevention specialists and HIV-infected peers.

What needs to be done?

Health care providers need more and repeated training on how HIV prevention can be integrated into the care they deliver. There are still significant misperceptions among health care providers about who should be tested for HIV and when to implement rapid testing. Provider attitudes, beliefs and self-efficacy can affect whether or not they address prevention through HIV testing or by providing risk-reduction counseling. Methods that enhance provider uptake of HIV prevention in health care delivery settings need attention and further research. Leaders in health care settings can establish written protocols that guide HIV prevention practices, including HIV testing in their clinics. Establishing protocols, documentation and quality assurance practices can enhance testing and prevention practices in all types of health care settings.

Says who?

1. Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings.Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2006;55:1-17. 2. Haukoos JS, Hopkins E, Byyny RL, et al. Patient acceptance of rapid HIV testing practices in an urban emergency department: assessment of the 2006 CDC recommendations for HIV screening in health care settings. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 2008;51:303-309. 3. Tepper NK, Farr SL, Danner SP, et al. Rapid human immunodeficiency virus testing in obstetric outpatient settings: the MIRIAD study. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2009;201:31-36. 4. Myers JJ, Modica C, Bernstein C, Kang M, McNamara K. Routine rapid HIV screening in six Community Health Centers serving populations at risk. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2009;24:1269–1274. 5. Branson BM. State of the art for diagnosis of HIV infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2007;15:S221-225. 6. Christopoulos K, Koester K, Weiser S, et al. A comparative evaluation of the development and implementation of three emergency department HIV testing programs (forthcoming) 7. Schechtel J, Coates T, Mayer K, et al. HIV risk assessment: physician and patient communication. Journal of General Internal Med. 1997;12:722-723. 8. Bruce RD. Methadone as HIV prevention: High volume methadone sites to decrease HIV incidence rates in resource limited settings. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2010;21:122-124. 9. McClelland RS, Baeten JM. Reducing HIV-1 transmission through prevention strategies targeting HIV-1-seropositive individuals. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2006;57:163-166. 10. Myers JJ, Shade S, Dawson Rose C, et al. Interventions delivered in clinical settings are effective in reducing risk of HIV transmission among people living with HIV. AIDS and Behavior. 2010;14:483-492. 11. Gilliam PP, Straub DM. Prevention with positives: A review of published research, 1998-2008. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care. 2009;20:92-109. 12. Harder & Co. Community Research. Prevention with positives: Best practices Guide. Prevention with Positives Workgroup. 2009. 13. Porco TC, Martin JN, Page-Shafer KA, et al. Decline in HIV infectivity following the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2004;18:81-88. 14. Das M, Chu PL, Santos G-M, et al. Decreases in community viral load are accompanied by reductions in new HIV infections in San Francisco. PLoS ONE. 2010;5:e11068. 15. Myers JJ, Steward, WT, Koester KA, et al. Written procedures enhance delivery of HIV “prevention with positives” counseling in primary health care settings. Journal of AIDS. 2004;37:S95-S100. 16. Koester KA, Maiorana A, Vernon K, et al. Implementation of HIV prevention interventions with people living with HIV/AIDS in clinical settings: Challenges and lessons learned. AIDS and Behavior. 2007;1:S17-S29. 17. Thrun M, Cook PF, Bradley-Springer LA, et al. Improved prevention counseling by HIV care providers in a multisite, clinic-based intervention: Positive STEPs. AIDS Education and Prevention. 2009;21:55-66. 18. Richardson J, Milam J, McCutchan A, et al. Effect of brief safer-sex counseling by medical providers to HIV-1 seropositive patients: A multi-clinic assessment. AIDS. 2004;18:1179-1186. 19. Gilbert P, Ciccarone D, Gansky SA, et al. Interactive “Video Doctor” counseling reduces drug and sexual risk behaviors among HIV+ patients in diverse outpatient settings. PLoS One. 2008;3.

Special thanks to the following reviewers of this Fact Sheet: Lucy Bradley-Springer, Kimberly Carbaugh, Mark Cichocki, Renata Dennis, Josh Ferrer, Mark Molnar, Quentin O’Brien, Jim Sacco. Reproduction of this text is encouraged; however, copies may not be sold, and the University of California San Francisco should be cited as the source. Fact Sheets are also available in Spanish. To receive Fact Sheets via e-mail, send an e-mail to [email protected] with the message “subscribe CAPSFS first name last name.” ©July 2010, University of CA. Comments and questions about this Fact Sheet may be e-mailed to [email protected].