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¿Cuál es el efecto de la revelación del estatus de VIH en la prevención del VIH?

¿por qué es importante en el VIH?

La revelación de la condición de ser VIH+ es un asunto complejo, delicado y muy personal. Se trata de hablar sobre una enfermedad estigmatizada, transmisible y potencialmente mortal. Las decisiones al respecto no sólo son personales sino que varían según la edad, la situación, el contexto y la pareja, y pueden cambiar durante el transcurso del tiempo y según las experiencias de la persona. Históricamente, los mensajes de salud pública han exhortado la revelación del estatus de VIH a toda pareja sexual y de drogas. En la realidad, algunas personas VIH+ tal vez prefieran no revelar su estatus por varios motivos: temor al rechazo o daño, sentimientos de culpabilidad, el deseo de mantenerlo en secreto, creer que al protegerse durante el acto sexual ya no es necesario revelarla, fatalismo, la percepción de normas comunitarias en contra de la revelación y creer que los otros tienen la responsabilidad de protegerse.¹ Esta hoja se centra en la revelación del estatus de VIH dentro del contexto sexual. Comentar y revelar el estatus de VIH es una vía de doble sentido. Ya sea correcto o no, la mayoría de las personas creen que cuando una persona se sabe VIH+ entonces le incumbe informar a su pareja, y a los consejeros se les anima a ayudarles en este proceso. Además, en algunas áreas las leyes requieren la revelación del estatus de VIH+ antes de iniciar el contacto sexual.² Sin embargo, ambos integrantes de la pareja deben compartir la responsabilidad de conocer su propia condición, de revelarla cuando lo estimen importante y de preguntar a su pareja sobre la condición del otro si desean enterarse. La mayoría de las personas VIH+ revelan su estatus a algunas pero no a todas sus parejas, amistades y familiares. Generalmente, entre más tiempo se viva con el VIH, más fácil se hace aceptar y revelar dicha estatus. La revelación del estatus de VIH a parejas sexuales es más común en las relaciones románticas de largo plazo que en las casuales (aventuras de una noche, parejas anónimas, sesiones grupales, etc.).³ La revelación también varía según la percepción del estatus de VIH de las parejas, el nivel de riesgo de VIH de los actos sexuales, el sentido de responsabilidad de proteger a las parejas (responsabilidad personal vs. compartida) y el consumo de alcohol o drogas.

¿afecta las relaciones sexuales?

La relación entre la revelación del estatus de VIH, las conductas sexuales de riesgo y la posible transmisión del VIH varía. Las investigaciones presentan un cuadro mixto al respecto.⁴ Algunos estudios han encontrado que el aumento de la revelación del estatus de VIH se asocia con una reducción de conductas sexuales riesgosas.⁵ Otros indican que no siempre produce cambios en la conducta riesgosa.⁶ Incluso en casos de revelación del estatus de VIH, el sexo sin protección ocurre a veces. Algunas personas practican el sexo más seguro sin mencionar el estatus de VIH.⁷ La revelación del estatus de VIH puede brindar beneficios psicológicos. Un estudio entre consumidores de drogas inyectables VIH+ que revelaron su estatus encontró que sintieron mayor intimidad con sus parejas y reafirmación de su sentido de sí mismos.⁸ Muchas personas VIH+ que revelan su estatus notan que disminuye su ansiedad sobre la transmisión, lo cual les permite sentirse más tranquilas y relajadas durante el acto sexual. Para muchos es delicado escoger el momento de la revelación del estatus de VIH. Si no se hace oportunamente, la revelación puede ser más difícil con el paso de tiempo, pudiendo así trastornar la relación si la pareja recién informada se sintiera traicionada por la demora. Las personas VIH+ que han planeado la revelación del estatus y mantienen una estrategia congruente son menos propensas a tener conductas sexuales riesgosas que quienes no revelan su estatus o tienen estrategias incongruentes.⁵

¿afecta las relaciones sociales?

Sí. La revelación del estatus de VIH a los seres queridos puede aumentar el apoyo que reciben las personas VIH+. Un estudio entre hombres latinos homosexuales encontró que la revelación del estatus de VIH se vinculaba a mayor calidad de apoyo social, mayor auto estima y menores niveles de depresión.⁹ La revelación del estatus de VIH también puede llevar a apoyo que facilite el inicio y el apego de tratamiento y medicamentos contra el VIH.^10,11 A veces la revelación del estatus de VIH+ produce rechazo, discriminación o violencia. Informar a ciertas personas también puede resultar más pesado que benéfico. Un estudio encontró que era más frecuente informar a los amigos y recibir su apoyo en comparación con los familiares. Entre los familiares, se informó a más madres y hermanas que a padres y hermanos; y se percibió que las mujeres les brindaron más apoyo que otros miembros de la familia.¹²

¿cuáles son las polémicas al respecto?

Existe un debate en torno a si las parejas tienen derecho a saber si su pareja es VIH+, lo cual les permitiría tomar una decisión plenamente informada sobre qué actividades sexuales realizar. Algunas personas VIH+ creen que si sólo tienen relaciones sexuales protegidas, no hay necesidad de revelar su condición, especialmente con las parejas casuales, y que fomentar la revelación del estatus de VIH sólo sirve para aumentar el estigma contra la gente VIH+. Estos temas pueden complicarse debido a normas complejas sobre los papeles de género y a leyes locales—en EE.UU. las leyes de 23 estados criminalizan la participación en ciertas conductas de riesgo sin revelación previa la condición de VIH.² Las personas pueden usar la revelación del estatus de VIH para limitarse a elegir parejas de su misma estatus, ya sea ésta VIH+ o VIH- (proceso conocido también como seroselección). El éxito de la seroselección como estrategia de prevención depende de la revelación del estatus de VIH sincera y precisa de ambos integrantes de la pareja sexual.¹³ Aunque alguien tuviera disposición por revelar el estatus del VIH, es posible que no tenga conciencia sobre su situación.¹⁴ Por ejemplo, algunas personas que se consideran VIH- pueden estar en la etapa aguda de infección por VIH (las semanas o meses iniciales de la adquisición del VIH). Durante este lapso, el cuerpo todavía no produce una respuesta detectable a los anticuerpos, pudiendo el individuo obtener un resultado negativo de la prueba estándar del VIH. Lo preocupante es que durante esta etapa de la infección cuando hay relaciones sexuales sin protección, es mucho más fácil transmitir el virus que en cualquier otro momento.¹⁵

¿qué se está haciendo al respecto?

Muchos expertos creen que la revelación del estatus de VIH+ ayuda a impedir la transmisión del VIH y amplía el apoyo social para los individuos VIH+. Esto ha generado el diseño de programas que promueven la revelación del estatus de VIH y buscan hacer de ésta una experiencia constructiva. La mayoría de los programas que apoyan la revelación del estatus de VIH están integrados en los servicios generales de prevención y bienestar para personas VIH+. Los programas pueden incluir conversaciones sobre los beneficios de revelar su estatus, el mejor momento para hacerlo y a quiénes. Los programas deben incluir practicar las habilidades para hablar sobre la condición de VIH en el contexto de la negociación sexual y de las citas románticas. El Healthy Living Project es una intervención conductual cognitiva de 15 sesiones individuales que ayuda a personas VIH+ a afrontar los retos de convivir con el VIH. Aborda temas como: el estrés, maneras para afrontar y adaptarse a la realidad, conductas más protegidas (incluyendo revelación a parejas) y prácticas relacionadas con la salud. Los participantes reportaron menos actos sexuales desprotegidos con personas VIH- o cuya condición de VIH desconocían.¹⁶ Healthy Relationships es un programa de 5 sesiones en grupos pequeños para aumentar las habilidades de las personas VIH+ y es una intervencion seleccionada por el CDC como parte de Dissemination of Effective Interventions (DEBI). Su propósito es reducir el estrés de los participantes con respecto a las conductas sexuales más seguras y a la revelación del estatus de VIH a sus familiares, amistades y parejas sexuales. Los participantes reportaron considerablemente menos sexo sin protección y mayor uso de condones en las sesiones de seguimiento.¹⁷ Otros métodos relacionados con la revelación del estatus de VIH han buscado estimular tanto a las personas VIH+ como a las VIH- a evitar hacer suposiciones sobre la condición de VIH de su pareja, a hacerse la prueba del VIH, a revelar su propia estatus de VIH y a protegerse en sus relaciones sexuales con toda pareja. El Departamento de Salud Pública de San Francisco, CA creó la Disclosure Initiative, una campaña de mercadeo social para normalizar la revelación del estatus de VIH para hombres VIH+ y VIH-.¹⁸

¿qué queda por hacer?

Necesitamos normalizar y facilitar discusiones cómodas sobre el VIH para que no sea tan difícil revelar la condición de ser VIH+. Entre más conversaciones tengamos sobre el VIH y más personas que revelen ser VIH+, menor será el estigma. La revelación del estatus de VIH es una vía de doble sentido. Esto significa que ambos participantes del encuentro sexual deben afrontar el tema. Muchas personas que viven con el VIH son más felices en sus relaciones (a largo y a corto plazo) cuando su condición de VIH es conocida por sus parejas. No existe una respuesta o normativa sencilla con respecto a la revelación del estatus de VIH. Los profesionales médicos, consejeros y programas deben ser sensibles a su complejidad y entender que ésta no es lo mejor para todas las personas en todos los contextos. Sin embargo, revelar el estatus de VIH puede facilitar la provisión de apoyo a personas VIH+ y generar una mejor comunicación incluyendo la reducción de prácticas de riesgo entre parejas sexuales.

¿Quién lo dice?

1. Wolitski RJ, Parsons JT, Gómez CA, et al. Prevention with HIV-seropositive men who have sex with men: lessons from the Seropositive Urban Men’s Study and the Seropositive Urban Men’s Intervention Trial. Journal of AIDS. 2004;37:S101-109. 2. Galletly CL, Pinkerton SD. Conflicting messages: how criminal HIV disclosure laws undermine public health efforts to control the spread of HIV. AIDS and Behavior. 2006;10:451-461. 3. Duru OK, Collins RL, Ciccarone DH, et al. Correlates of sex without serostatus disclosure among a national probability sample of HIV patients. AIDS and Behavior. 2006;10:495-507. 4. Simoni JM, Pantalone D. Secrets and safety in the age of AIDS: does HIV disclosure lead to safer sex? Topics in HIV Medicine. 2004;12:109-118. 5. Parsons JT, Schrimshaw EW, Bimbi DS, et al. Consistent, inconsistent, and non-disclosure to casual sex partners among HIV-seropositive gay and bisexual men. AIDS. 2005;19:S87-S97. 6. Crepaz N, Marks G. Serostatus disclosure, sexual communication and safer sex in HIV-positive men. AIDS Care. 2003;15:379-387. 7. Klitzman R, Exner T, Correale J, et al. It’s not just what you say: Relationships of HIV dislosure and risk reduction among MSM in the post-HAART era. AIDS Care. 2007;19:749-756. 8. Parsons JT, VanOra J, Missildine W, et al. Positive and negative consequences of HIV disclosure among seropositive injection drug users. AIDS Education and Prevention. 2004;16:459-475. 9. Zea MC, Reisen CA, Poppen PJ, et al. Disclosure of HIV status and psychological well-being among Latino gay and bisexual men. AIDS and Behavior. 2005;9:15-26. 10. Stirratt MJ, Remien RH, Smith A, et al. The role of HIV serostatus disclosure in antiretroviral medication adherence. AIDS and Behavior. 2006;10:483-493. 11. Klitzman RL, Kirshenbaum SB, Dodge B, et al. Intricacies and inter-relationships between HIV disclosure and HAART: a qualitative study. AIDS Care. 2004;16:628-640. 12. Kalichman SC, DiMarco M, Austin J, et al. Stress, social support, and HIV-status disclosure to family and friends among HIV-positive men and women. Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2003;26:315-332. 13. Cairns G. New directions in HIV prevention: serosorting and universal testing. IAPAC Monthly. February 2006:42-45. 14. MacKellar DA, Valleroy LA, Behel S, et al. Unintentional HIV exposures from young men who have sex with men who disclose being HIV-negative. AIDS. 2006;20:1637-1644. 15. Pilcher CD, Eron JJ, Galvin S, et al. Acute HIV revisited: new opportunities for treatment and prevention. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2004;113:937-945. 16. The Healthy Living Project Team. Effects of a behavioral intervention to reduce risk of transmission among people living with HIV: the Healthy Living Project randomized controlled study. Journal of AIDS. 2006; 44:213-221. 17. Kalichman SC, Rompa D, Cage M, et al. Effectiveness of an intervention to reduce HIV transmission risks in HIV-positive people. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2001;21: 84-92. Program information 18. hivdisclosure.com, https://www.thewellproject.org/hiv-information/disclosure-and-hiv 

Preparado por Robert H. Remien y Mark Bradley HIV Center for Clinical & Behavioral Studies, NY State Psychiatric Institute y Columbia University Traducción: Rocky Schnaath Diciembre 2007. Hoja de Dato #64S

What are American Indian/ Alaskan Natives’ (AI/AN) HIV prevention needs?

Are AI/AN at risk for HIV?

Yes. American Indians and Alaskan Natives (AI/AN) represent a unique population within the US, not only because of their oppression suffered in the development of this country but also because of their ongoing struggle to gain recognition in the HIV/AIDS epidemic. AI/ANs are not so unique, however, that they are protected from the same behaviors that put all people at risk for HIV infection. The long history of oppression of AI/AN in the US has had a devastating effect on the health and well-being of Native Peoples. This history, including colonization, outlawing Native languages and spiritual practices, and centuries of forced relocation, has created justified mistrust of US government programs and health institutions.¹ This legacy continues to shape the experience of AI/AN as they are disproportionately impacted by poverty, ill health, family violence and drug and alcohol abuse. All of these factors are associated with HIV risk.² Through the end of 2000, AI/ANs comprised 2,337 AIDS cases and 871 HIV cases³. AI/AN constitute approximately 1% of the total US population, and just under 1% of reported AIDS and HIV cases³. Although these numbers appear small relative to other populations, the impact is considerable. Underreporting and the lack of detailed HIV surveillance of AI/AN may result in significant undercounting of HIV infections. Further, AI/AN are often misclassified in terms of race/ethnicity on data collection forms, due to assumptions about names, skin color, residence and even intentionally misleading self reporting.⁴ A study of STD data in Oklahoma found that 35% of chlamydia and over 60% of gonorrhea cases among AI/AN had been incorrectly attributed as Hispanic or white.⁵

What puts AI/ANs at risk?

HIV research among AI/AN has a short history starting in the early 1990s, with few studies on risk behavior. According to the CDC, for AI/AN men, the leading exposure category for HIV is men who have sex with men (MSM) at 51%, MSM and injection drug use (IDU) 13% and heterosexual IDU 12%. Among women, the primary exposure risk is heterosexual contacts at 41%, followed by IDU at 32%. However, this data does not include data from California, which has the largest Native population of all 50 states.⁶ AI/AN populations are disproportionately impacted by social, behavioral and economic factors that are associated with HIV risk. AI/AN suffer high rates of poverty and unemployment, with 32% living below poverty level, compared to 13% of the general US population. Native Americans also experience high rates of drug and alcohol use, STDs and violence. Alcohol use in the AI/AN population has resulted in the highest alcohol-related mortality rates for all US populations.⁹ One study of AN drug users found that alcohol use was the factor that put them at greatest risk for HIV. Many individuals reported blacking out while drinking, and later learned that they had unprotected sex with complete strangers or persons they would not otherwise accept as partners.¹⁰ This same study showed that drug using Alaskan Native women are at high risk for gonorrhea infection and HIV infection. AN women were more likely to inject drugs than any other ethnic group among women, and they were more likely to have white male injectors as sex partners. Sex pairs composed of AN women and white men were the least likely of any ethnic pair combinations to use condoms.¹¹ In states with AI/AN populations over 20,000, gonnorhea and syphilis rates are twice as high as among other ethnic groups.⁷ Persons with STDs are more likely both to transmit HIV and become infected with HIV if exposed. A study of American Indian youth in over 200 reservation-based schools across the US showed that youth engaged in several risk behaviors: the use of alcohol, tobacco and other drugs, risky sexual behavior and suicidal behaviors. Drug use was most commonly associated with other risky behaviors.¹²

What are barriers to prevention?

HIV is often rendered invisible within AI/AN communities that are facing many other severe and more visible health and social problems such as alcoholism, diabetes and unemployment. As a result, there is often great denial about HIV as a problem in AI/AN communities. Like in many other tight-knit communities, confidentiality can be difficult to maintain in AI/AN communities, especially in rural areas. This can be a barrier to important prevention activities such as testing for HIV, discussing sexual practices with health care providers, obtaining drug treatment, or buying condoms in local stores. Prevention services for AI/AN MSM are severely underfunded, and those that exist may not reach MSM at risk. AI/AN MSM have a wide range of identities, from “gay” to “two-spirit” and may not access services addressed to urban gay men.¹³ AI/AN MSM may feel isolated and not seek out needed services because of stigma and denial about homosexuality in some AI/AN communities. The AI/AN population is highly diverse, with over 550 federally-recognized tribes. AI/AN consider themselves to belong to Indian nations that are sovereign, with complex relationships between tribal, state and federal governments. Many state and local governments erroneously assume that the IHS is solely responsible for the health- related needs of AI/AN. Less than 1% of IHS budget goes to urban populations, yet more than half of all AI/AN in the US live in urban areas. As a result, AI/AN tribes and organizations are often denied funding opportunities available to other citizens.

What’s being done?

To address the rising rates of STDs and HIV among adolescents in a rural Arizona Indian tribe, tribal health educators, school officials and public health officials collaborated to establish several programs including school health clinics, Native American HIV+ speakers, peer-produced educational dramas, community educational meetings and radio and newspaper ads. Cases of STDs and HIV peaked in 1990 and slowly declined over the next six years, for a 69% overall reduction in STDs.¹⁴ The Indigenous People’s Task Force (IPTF) in Minneapolis, MN, promotes health and education for Native persons. Their Ogitchidag Gikinooamaagad (warrior/teachers) peer education/theater program provides youth with a comprehensive HIV/AIDS prevention curriculum, theater instruction and traditional teachings. IPTF’s programs have been acknowledged by the US Surgeon General.¹⁵ The Indian Health Care Resource Center (IHCRC) of Tulsa, OK provides a biweekly social group for two-spirit Native American men to help build a sense of community, self-esteem and reduce risk behaviors. IHCRC also hosts a relationship skills-building workshop which focuses on helping the participants determine what they want out of relationships, managing triggers to risk behavior and increasing negotiating skills. Each year, IHCRC offers a 4-day retreat with social, cultural and educational activities including traditional meals, a Powwow and stomp dancing.¹⁶

What still needs to be done?

AI/AN communities, although diverse in many ways, share a sense of pride, self- determination, spirituality, and resiliency which have helped them fight HIV infection in their communities. These efforts need to be encouraged to ensure sustained HIV prevention. This can only occur with cooperation and collaboration between the many agencies who work with AI/AN, including tribal health care systems, federal, state and local health departments and non-profit agencies. For example, complex funding streams need to be simplified to allow AI/AN communities greater access to prevention resources. HIV/AIDS must be made visible in AI/AN communities to prevent the spread of HIV. Visibility can be increased by collecting reliable HIV/AIDS data, including AI/AN in the design and delivery of HIV prevention programs, addressing AI/AN stigma about homosexuality and drug use, and linking to STD, violence, unintended pregnancy, and alcohol and drug abuse prevention programs.

Says who?

1. National Institutes of Health. Women of color health data book: adolescents to seniors. 1999. NIH publication #99-4247.www4.od.nih.gov/orwh/WOCEnglish.pdf (accessed January 2002). 2. Vernon I. Killing Us Quietly: Native Americans and HIV/AIDS. University of Nebraska Press, 2001. 3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. HIV and AIDS cases reported through December 2001, Year-end edition. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. 2001;13 (2). (accessed April 2006). 4. Rowell RM, Bouey PD. Update on HIV/AIDS among American Indians and Alaska Natives. The IHS Primary Care Provider. 1997;22:49-53. (accessed April 2006). 5. Thoroughman DA, Frederickson D, Cameron HD, et al. Racial Misclassification of American Indians in Oklahoma state surveillance data for sexually transmitted diseases. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2002;155(12): 1137-41. 6. Smith AS, Ahmed B, Sink L. US Census Bureau. An Analysis of State and County Population Changes by Characteristics: 1990-1999. Working Paper Series No. 45. (accessed April 2006). 7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV/AIDS among American Indians and Alaskan Natives – United States, 1981-1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 1998;47:154-160. (accessed April 2006). 8. Morrison-Beedy D, Carey MP, Lewis BP, et al. HIV risk behavior and psychological correlates among Native American women: an exploratory investigation. Journal of Women’s Health and Gender-Based Medicine. 2001:10;487-494. 9. Indian Health Service. Trends in Indian Health–1997. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Indian Health Service, Office of Planning, Education, and Legislation, Division of Program Statistics. 1998. 10. Baldwin JA, Maxwell CJ, Fenaughty AM, et al. Alcohol as a risk factor for HIV transmission among American Indian and Alaska Native drug users. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research. 2000;9:1-16. 11. Fisher DG, Fenaughty AM, Paschane DM, et al. Alaska Native drug users and sexually transmitted disease: results of a five-year study. American Indian Alaska Native Mental Health Research. 2000;9:47-57. 12. Potthoff SJ, Bearinger LH, Skay CL, et al. Dimensions of risk behaviors among American Indian youth. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine. 1998;152:157-163. 13. National Native American AIDS Prevention Center. HIV Prevention for gay/bisexual/two-spirit Native American men. 1996. https://www.nnaapc.net/ (accessed April 2006). 14. Yost D, Hamstra S, Roosevelt L. HIV/AIDS and STD prevention in a rural Arizona Indian tribe. Presented at the International Conference on AIDS, Geneva, Switzerland. 1998. Abst #43162. 15. Indigenous People’s Task Force, 1433 East Franklin Ave. Suite 18A, Minneapolis, MN 55404. Contact Sharon Day 612/870-1723.www.indigenouspeoplestf.org (accessed January 2002). 16. Indian Healthcare Resource Center of Tulsa, 550 South Peoria, Tulsa, OK 74120. https://www.ihcrc.org/ (accessed January 2002).

Prepared by Ron Rowell MPH*, Paul Bouey PhD MPH** *San Francisco Foundation, **Pangaea Global AIDS Foundation January 2002. Fact Sheet #43E Special thanks to the following reviewers of this Fact Sheet: Joan Benoit, Lucy Bradley-Springer, Yvonne Davis, Sharon Day, Thomas Lee Eades, Sheila Fitzgibbons, Diane Morrison-Beady, Billy Rogers, Chris Sandoval, Delight E. Satter, Irene Vernon, Diane Williams, Charlton Wilson.

Reproduction of this text is encouraged; however, copies may not be sold, and the Center for AIDS Prevention Studies at the University of California San Franciso should be cited as the source of this information. For additional copies of this and other HIV Prevention Fact Sheets, please call the National Prevention Information Network at 800/458-5231. Comments and questions about this Fact Sheet may be e-mailed to [email protected]. © January 2002, University of California

¿Qué necesítan los afro-americanos en la prevención del VIH? (revisado 8/00)

¿corren el riesgo de contraer el VIH los afro-americanos?

Sí. Muchos Afro-Americanos corren alto riesgo de infectarse con VIH, no por razones étnicas o raciales, sino por los comportamientos de riesgo en los que pueden estar participando. Igual que ocurre en otros grupos raciales/étnicos, el riesgo de infección con VIH no solo depende de la identidad, sino del tipo de conductas riesgos que se estén llevando a cabo con una pareja VIH+, y si se tiene acceso a servicios médicos y prevención. La mayoría de los casos de SIDA en Afro-Americanos ocurre en personas de 25 a 44 años de edad y en hombres. A pesar de contar con el 13% de la población total estadounidense, los Afro-Americanos se ven desproprocionadamente afectados por el VIH ya que cuentan con el 37% de todos los casos de SIDA. En 1998, casi dos tercios (62%) de los casos de SIDA entre mujeres estuvo compuesto por Afro-Americanas. Al unísono, el 37% de todos los casos de SIDA en la categoría de Usuarios de Drogas Intravenosas (UDIs) pertenecia a Afro-Americanos. En 1998, los niños Afro-Americanos representaron el 62% de todos los casos de SIDA infantil.

¿cuáles afro-americanos están a riesgo?

Los Afro-Americanos, igual que otros grupos raciales o étnicos, representan una población diversa. Su diversidad se evidencia en el estado migratorio, religioso, nivel económico, posicióngeográfica y el idioma que hablan. Por ejemplo, los Afro-Americanos incluyendo a oficinistas y la clase trabajadora, Musulmanes y Cristianos. Pueden residir en el centro de la ciudad y en áreas rurales, pueden ser descendientes de esclavos o Caribeños recién emigrados. Los datos de vigilancia epidemiológica actuales, no registran la identidad social, cultural, económica, geográfica, política y religiosa que pudiera predecir con mayor exactitud el nivel de riesgo. Dentro de las comunidades Afro-Americanas, la transmisión del VIH se toma como un problema de los heterosexuales UDIs y de sus parejas sexuales. Sin embargo, la proporción acumulativa de casos de SIDA atribuida a la actividad homosexual/bisexual (38%) es mayor que la atribuida al uso de drogas inyectadas (35%). En general, los adolescentes Afro-Americanos registran tasas de seroprevalencia mucho mayores que las de los adolescentes Anglo-Sajones. Las jóvenes Afro-Americanas, especialmente las sexualmente activas y de los barrios pobres son las que tienen un mayor nivel de riesgo de infección con VIH. En un estudio a jóvenes desertores escolares de bajo nivel económico en los “Job Corps” (Cuerpos de Trabajo) se descubrió que las mujeres entre los 16 a 18 años de edad tenían tasas de infección 50% mayores a las de los varones Afro-Americanos.

¿cómo se exponen al riesgo?

El uso de drogas inyectadas ha sido el factor determinante de la infección con VIH entre los Afro-Americanos. Si bien es cierto que la mayoría de los UDIs en los EEUU son Blancos, las tasas de infección son mayores en UDIs Negros. El desempleo y la probreza son co-factores significativos que pueden estar contribuyendo al aumento en los índices de adicción y comporta-mientos de riesgo. En efecto, la epidemia del VIH y del uso de drogas en Afro-Americanos se concentra en un número reducido de barrios urbanos del centro de la ciudad, lo cual indica que la epidemia puede estar mas ligada a la geografía y a la pobreza que a la raza o etnia. Si bien las actitudes en la comunidad Afro-Americana cambian poco a poco, la homofobia y las actitudes negativas hacia el hombre homosexual continúan vigentes. Para los hombres jóvenes Afro-Americanos que tienen sexo con otros hombres, estas actitudes negativas pueden ocasionar una baja auto-estima, falta de conección comunitaria y malestares psicológicos, factores que a su vez contribuyen a las conductas de riesgo. Muchas mujeres Afro-Americanas, las adolescentes en especial, presentan alto riesgo de adquirir el VIH por la vía heterosexual. Las mujeres Afro-Americanas pueden no querer o no estar aptas para negociar el uso del condón puesto que pueden pensar que esto va a interferir con la intimidad física y emocional; puede implicar infifelidad propia o de su pareja o puede ocasionar abuso físico. Algunas mujeres pueden, además, estar en un estado de negación o hasta desconocer el riesgo que corren. Más de un tercio (35%) de los casos de SIDA en mujeres Afro-Americanas reportados en 1998 se clasificaron como “riesgo no reportado” o “no identificado”. Se creee que la mayoría de estas mujeres se infectan por medio del sexo heterosexual con UDIs y/o parejas “gay” o bisexuales.

¿cuáles son los obstáculos en la prevención?

Las comunidades de color de este país, incluyendo a la Afro-Americana, han experiementado persistentes desigualdades en beneficios sociales, cuidados médicos, educación y oportunidades de trabajo. Las disparidades económicas continúan deteriorando el estado de salud de los Afro-Americanos y de otras comunidaes de color en los EEUU. Dando como resultado altos índices de muerte y enfermedeades en la comunidad Afro-Americana. Adicionalmente, muchos Afro-Americanos mantienen una desconfianza hacia los programas gubernamentales y hacia las intituciones de salud. Algunos Afro-Americanos piensan que los efectos del SIDA en la comunidad forman parte de los esfuerzos deliberados y de omisión de responsablidad por parte del gobierno estadounidense. La eficacia de los programas de prevención de índole comunitaria deben tomar en cuenta estos factores. El problema del SIDA dentro de la comunidad Afro-Americana se entiende como un problema principalmente “gay”. Adicionalmente, la homofobia está presente en la familia, la iglesia y la comunidad Afro-Americanas tanto a nivel personal como institucional. Muchos homosexuales Afro-Americanos sexualmente activos pueden estar renuentes a responder ante la epidemia del SIDA por temor a ser alienados.

¿qué se está haciendo?

A los jóvenes Afro-Americanos de Filadelfia, PA, se les ofreció un programa de prevención que integraba intervenciones de abstinencia y de sexo seguro. Los participantes en las intervenciones de abstinencia reportaron menos relaciones sexuales 3 meses después, pero no a los 6 o 12 meses de seguimiento. De los jóvenes que reportaron previa experiencia sexual, los que recibieron la intervención de sexo seguro reportaron menos relaciones sexuales que los que recibieron la intervención de abstinencia a 3-, 6-, y 12-meses de seguimiento. Ambas alternativas, el sexo seguro y la abstinencia redujeron las conductas sexuales de riesgo a corto plazo, pero las intervenciones de sexo seguro pueden tener efectos más duraderos y pueden ser más eficaces para los jóvenes con previa experiencia sexual. Algunas comunidades que promulgan la fé están respondiendo al VIH de forma innovadora. En Tennessee, la Iglesia Interdenominacional inició un programa para atraer a UDIs de 4 barrios pobres predomantemente Afro-Americanos. El programa ofrece agujas esterilizadas, condones, manejo de casos y educación preventiva. Ellos están creando un programa modelo de reducción de riesgo con base en la iglesia para ser utilizado en otras comunidades de este tipo. “The Well,” un centro para mujeres Afro-Americanas al que se acude sin previo aviso, diseñado para esta comunidad, promueve la auto-eficacia y el bienestar en un proyecto de viviendas para personas de bajos ingresos en Los Angeles, CA. Este centro ofrece servicios de apoyo por parte de personas que reciben los servicios en “círculos de hermanas”, clases de ejercicio, educación sobre salud comunitaria, una sala/biblioteca, una oficina de enfermería y mantiene asociaciones con otras organizaciones comunitarias de salud. “The Well” mezcla la educación sobre VIH/ETS con la educación general que trata todos los aspectos de la vida de estas mujeres.

¿qué es necesario hacer?

Los científicos y proveedores de servicio necesitan conocer más a fondo cual es el papel de la cultura y los factores socio-económicos en la transmisión del VIH asi como la desigualdad racial en salud pública. Adicionalmente, las autoridades de salud pública deben considerar un cambio al sistema de vigilancia epidemiológica para que incluya otros tipos de información demográfica tales como los factores culturales, sociales y económicos. Estos esfuerzos necesitan tener una influencia en el diseño de los mensajes de prevención del VIH, servicios y programas. En la segunda década de la epidemia del SIDA, falta por tomar en cuenta la homofobia y la negación de la problemática del SIDA. Las instituciones de salud pública deben buscar formas de establecer asociaciones con las comunidades Afro-Americanas que promulgan la fé e incorporar la compasión a la enseñanza espiritual que logre despertar la respuesta de la comunidad. La prevención del VIH para los Afro-Americanos debe llevarse a cabo a nivel de comunidad. Los programas complejos deben establecer nexos con otros servicios de salud tales como los programas de abuso de sustancias ilícitas, servicios de planificación familiar y clínicas de ETS.

¿quién lo dice?

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV/AIDS Sur-veillance Report . 1998;10:1-43. 2. National Commission on AIDS. The challenge of HIV/AIDS in communities of color. 1994. 3. Moss N, Krieger N. Measuring social inequalities in health: report on the conference of the National Institutes of Health . Public Health Reports. 1995;110:302-305. 4. Valleroy LA, MacKellar DA, Karon JM, et al. HIV infection in disadvantaged out-of-school youth: prevalence for US Job Corps entrants, 1990 through 1996 . Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology. 1998;19:67-73. 5. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration . Preliminary results from the 1997 national household survey on drug abuse . US Department of Health and Human Service: Rockville, MD; 1999. 6. Fullilove, RE, Fullilove MT. HIV prevention and intervention in the African American community: a public health perspective. In: AIDS Knowledge Base. PT Cohen, ed. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. 1999. 7. Stokes JP, Peterson JL. Homophobia, self-esteem, and risk for HIV among African American men who have sex with men . AIDS Education and Prevention. 1998;10: 278-292. 8. Wingood GM, DiClemente RJ. Pattern influences and gender-related factors associated with noncondom use among young adult African American women . American Journal of Community Psychology. 1998;26:29-52. 9. Wingood GM, DiClemente RJ. The effects of having a physically abusive partner on the condom use and sexual negotiation practices of young adult African-American women . American Journal of Public Health. 1997;87:1016-1018. 10. Dalton HL. AIDS in blackface . Daedalus. 1989:118:205-227. 11. Thomas SB, Quinn SC. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 1932 to 1972: implications for HIV education and AIDS risk education programs in the black community . American Journal of Public Health. 1991;81: 1498-1506. 12. Peterson JL. AIDS-related risks and same-sex behaviors among African American men. In AIDS, Identity and Community. Herek GM, Greene B, eds. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA; 1995:85-104. 13. Jemmott JB III, Jemmott LS, Fong GT. Abstinence and safer sex HIV risk-reduction interventions for African American adolescents: a randomized controlled trial . Journal of the American Medical Association. 1998;279:1529-1536. 14. Sander E. Church based harm reduction programs. Presented at the 12th World AIDS Conference, June 1998,Geneva, Switzerland. Abst. #33380. 15. Elliott Brown KA, Jemmott FE, Mitchell HJ, et al. The Well: a neighborhood-based health promotion model for black women . Health and Social Work. 1998;23:146-152.

PREPARADO POR JOHN PETERSON PHD*, GINA WINGWOOD SCD, MPH**, RALPH DICLEMENTE PHD**, KATHLEEN QUIRK MA***; TRADUCIDO POR ROMY BENARD RODRÍGUEZ*** *DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY, GEORGIA STATE UNIVERSITY, ** ROLLINS SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH, EMORY UNIVERSITY, ***CAPS Agosto 2000. Hoja Informativa 15SR.

How does stigma affect HIV prevention and treatment?

Prepared by Pamela DeCarlo and Maria Ekstrand, PhD Community Engagement (CE) Core | October 2016

What is HIV/AIDS stigma?

HIV-related stigma is a significant problem globally.  HIV stigma inflicts hardship and suffering on people living with HIV and interferes with research, prevention, treatment, care and support efforts. HIV-related stigma refers to negative beliefs, feelings and attitudes towards people living with HIV, their families and people who work with them. HIV stigma often reinforces existing social inequalities based on gender, race, ethnicity, class, sexuality and culture. Stigma against many vulnerable populations who are disproportionately affected by HIV (such as the stigma of homosexuality, drug use, poverty, migration, transgender status, mental illness, sex work and racial, ethnic and tribal minority status) predates the epidemic and intersects with HIV stigma, which compounds the stigma and discrimination experienced by people living with HIV (PLWH) who belong to such groups.¹ HIV-related discrimination, also known as enacted HIV stigma, refers to the unfair and unjust treatment of someone based on their real or perceived HIV status. Discrimination also affects family members and friends, caregivers, healthcare and lab staff who care for PLWH. The drivers of HIV-related discrimination usually include misconceptions regarding casual transmission of HIV and pre-existing prejudices against certain populations, behaviors, sex, drug use, illness and death. Discrimination can be institutionalized through laws, policies and practices that unjustly affect PLWH and marginalized groups.¹

How is HIV stigma harmful?

Stigma and discrimination add barriers which weaken the ability of people and communities to protect themselves from HIV and to stay healthy if they are living with HIV. To persons living with HIV. Fear of stigma, discrimination and potential violence, may keep people from disclosing their status to family, friends and sexual partners. This can increase isolation and undermine their ability to access and adhere to treatment, and undermine prevention efforts such as using condoms and not sharing drug equipment. Enacted stigma can result in losing housing and jobs, being ostracized by family, and being treated badly in healthcare facilities, among other effects. To vulnerable populations. The way people experience stigma varies across countries and communities. Stigma discourages people from seeking information and programs, for fear it will make others think they have HIV, are promiscuous or unfaithful, or are members of populations associated with HIV, like people who inject drugs, sex workers and gay men. It can make people less likely to get tested for HIV, use condoms, ask their partners about their status, use clean needles and injection equipment, or access biomedical prevention options such as male circumcision and pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP).

How do people cope with stigma?

Several factors help individuals cope with HIV-related stigma, and respond to feelings of worthlessness, depression, and anger associated with their diagnosis. Many people learn to manage or cope with stigma quite well and have very positive relationships not impacted greatly by stigma, especially if they have supportive family and friends. Social support. For many PLWH, social support can help buffer the impact of any stigma. A study of African American PLWH found many had experienced stigma and discrimination, but the impact was softened by having non-PLWH in their social networks express interest and take the initiative to offer help. Connection with other PLWH gave them an opportunity to share their feelings and to fight for their rights.² A study of young African American men who have sex with men (MSM) found that stigma of racism and homophobia was associated with delayed HIV testing, but that men with peer support tested earlier.³ Adapting and coping. Although it can be difficult for persons in already stigmatized communities to identify as HIV-positive, many PLWH do accept their HIV status and successfully form an identity of being pro-active and choosing to live. Adequate treatment for depression and anxiety, along with acceptance of one’s diagnosis, provide a protective buffer against stigma and promote acceptance of lifelong HIV treatment.⁴

How is HIV stigma addressed?

Stigma exists, and should be targeted at multiple levels: individual, interpersonal (family, friends, social networks), organizational, community and public policy.5 Involving PLWH in the design, creation, implementation and evaluation of stigma reduction programs is critical to success. Individual level Increasing individual knowledge about HIV transmission, prevention and care, as well as access to services and legal rights is important. One study in South Africa found that while some PLWH experienced stigma through insults and arguments with family members during conflict, they knew that disclosing someone’s status without their consent was a crime. In these instances, threatening to go to the police, or sometimes actually calling the police, allowed PLWH to fight back and maintain their self-esteem.⁶ Interpersonal level The We Are Family campaign from Greater Than AIDS and the Georgia Department of Public Health, reinforces the importance of social support for PLWH. The video campaign features a grandmother and her grown son, a college student and his parents, a pastor and his congregation, a recovering addict and his mother, a transgender woman and her sister, and childhood best friends, all supporting one another following an HIV diagnosis.⁷ Organizational level Healthcare providers are often named by PLWH as important sources of stigma.⁸ Programs for training healthcare workers⁹ should address culturally-specific stigma drivers, including personal fears of infection, prejudice towards vulnerable groups, and misconceptions or lack of knowledge about HIV transmission, prevention, treatment and universal precautions.¹⁰ Programs also should address how the effect of stigma, discrimination, breaches of confidentiality and negative attitudes can negatively impact patients’ lives, health, and ability to follow treatment regimens. Biomedical and behavioral approaches to HIV prevention, such as PrEP, routine HIV testing, starting treatment soon after diagnosis (test and treat), and treatment for PLWH to viral suppression, have been successful in the US and several countries in reducing new HIV infections and improving the life and health of PLWH. However, HIV stigma and discrimination can greatly impact the success of these interventions. Stigma surrounding PrEP use, including assumptions about promiscuity, can negatively affect PrEP access and uptake.¹¹ Prejudice among healthcare workers may result in drug users, young adults, women¹² and other marginalized populations not being offered either PrEP or HIV testing. Community level The Let’s Stop HIV Together campaign, launched by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), raises awareness about HIV and its impact on the lives of all Americans, and fights stigma by showing that persons with HIV are real people—mothers, fathers, friends, brothers, sisters, sons, daughters, partners, wives, husbands, and co-workers. The campaign offers facts about HIV, links to testing sites across the US, guidance for taking action against stigma, and online stories about PLWH, and the people who care for them.¹³ Policy level In Ghana, the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice, the Ghana AIDS Commission and the Health Policy Project developed a web-based mechanism for PLWH to report discrimination in employment, health care, education and other areas. Reports can be anonymous, and all reports result in mediation, investigation and legal resolution by human rights and legal organizations.¹⁴

What needs to be done?

Both the US White House and UNAIDS reports recommend focusing on key populations that have high and disproportionate rates of HIV, and are at higher risk for transmitting and acquiring HIV.^1,15 Reducing stigma for other conditions common among persons at risk for or living with HIV—such as substance use, mental health problems, sex work and homelessness—and addressing homophobia are important efforts to improve health outcomes. However, promotion of disclosure of HIV status must be accompanied by protections for PLWH. This calls for a continued commitment to civil rights enforcement.

Says who?

1. UNAIDS. Reduction of HIV-related stigma and discrimination. Guidance Note. 2014. www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2014/ReductionofHIV-relatedstigma… 2. Mosack KE, Stevens PE, Brouwer AM, et al. Shared illness and social support within two HIV-affected African American communities. Qualitative Health Research. 2015 Oct 28. 3. Scott HM, Pollack L, Rebchook GM, et al. Peer social support is associated with recent HIV testing among young black men who have sex with men. AIDS and Behavior. 2014;1:913-920. 4. Katz IT, Ryu AE, Onuegbu AG, et al. Impact of HIV-related stigma on treatment adherence: systematic review and meta-synthesis. Journal of the International AIDS Society. 2013, 16(Suppl 2):18640. 5. Stangl AL, Lloyd JK, Brady LM, et al. A systematic review of interventions to reduce HIV-related stigma and discrimination from 2002 to 2013: how far have we come? Journal of the International AIDS Society. 2013;16(Suppl 2):18734.) 6. Abrahams N, Jewkes R. Managing and resisting stigma: a qualitative study among people living with HIV in South Africa. Journal of the International AIDS Society. 2012;15:17330. 7. We Are Family. www.greaterthan.org/we-are-family-love-saves-lives/ 8. UNAIDS. Key programmes to reduce stigma and discrimination and increase access to justice in national HIV responses. Guidance Note. 2012. https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2012/Key_Human_Rights_Programmes  9. Kidd R and Clay S. Understanding and challenging HIV stigma: Toolkit for action. International Center for Research on Women. 2003. www.icrw.org/publications/understanding-and-challenging-hiv-stigma-tool… 10. Ekstrand ML, Ramakrishna J, Bharat S, et al. Prevalence and drivers of HIV stigma among health providers in urban India: implications for interventions. Journal of International AIDS Society. 2013;16:18717. 11. Calabrese SK, Underhill K. How Stigma Surrounding the Use of HIV Preexposure prophylaxis undermines prevention and pleasure: A call to destigmatize “Truvada whores.” American Journal of Public Health. 2015;105:1960–1964. 12. Auerbach JD, Kinsky S, Brown G, et al. Knowledge, attitudes, and likelihood of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) use among US women at risk of acquiring HIV. AIDS Patient Care and STDs. 2015. 29:102-110. 13. CDC. Let’s Stop HIV Together. www.cdc.gov/actagainstaids/campaigns/lsht/ 14. UNAIDS. On the Fast-Track to end AIDS by 2030: Focus on location and population. 2015. www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2015/FocusLocationPopulation 15. The White House. The National HIV/AIDS Strategy: Updated to 2020. https://www.hiv.gov/federal-response/national-hiv-aids-strategy/nhas-update

Prepared by Pamela DeCarlo and Maria Ekstrand PhD, CAPS *CAPS October 2016 . Special thanks to the following reviewers of this Fact Sheet: Sarah Calabrese, Barbara Green-Ajufo, Cynthia Grossman, William Holzemer, Sebastian Kevany, Daryl Mangosing, Cynthia Tucker. Reproduction of this text is encouraged; however, copies may not be sold, and the University of California San Francisco should be cited as the source. Fact Sheets are also available in Spanish. ©2016, University of CA. Comments and questions about this Fact Sheet may be e-mailed to [email protected].

How can HIV prevention be integrated into health care settings?

Why is HIV prevention important in health care settings?

HIV prevention is an important part of health care for all individuals. It is particularly key for those at risk of becoming infected, as well as for those who are already infected, who can then avoid transmitting HIV to others and stay healthy themselves. Many strategies can be used in health care settings to optimize HIV prevention, including: assessing HIV risk; enhancing access to HIV testing; providing HIV-infected patients with disclosure and partner services; screening and treating patients for problem drinking, drug use and sexually transmitted infections (STIs); and providing the best possible care to HIV-infected individuals including access to anti-retroviral therapy (ARVs) and adherence counseling.

Do health care settings have a role in finding new infections?

Health care settings are important sites for providing access to HIV testing and prevention messages, for finding new infections and for linking infected individuals into HIV care. In 2006, the CDC issued guidelines for primary health care providers suggesting expanded access to HIV testing for all patients 13 to 64 years old.¹ Providing HIV testing as a routine part of care has been most productive in emergency room and labor and delivery settings,^2,3 although community health centers have also provided important new access.⁴ Testing programs have also proven effective in helping pregnant women to not transmit HIV to their babies.³ One key strategy for expanding testing is rapid test technology.⁵ Rapid tests allow providers to perform a test and deliver the results in under an hour, although a confirmatory test is required for positive rapid test results. Appropriate follow-up care can be planned before the patient leaves the health care facility. Especially when HIV testing is newly introduced, providers in health care settings need to learn how to integrate HIV testing into regular care, and to refer patients for additional support services if needed. Providers should also be trained in documenting test results to ensure they are shared with other health care providers and to maintain the confidentiality of client information. Providers must ensure that HIV-infected persons get the care and support they need. Linkage to care is an important and often overlooked piece of integrating HIV testing into health care. Individuals who are just finding out they are infected often need a great deal of help and support to find an HIV provider, to make an appointment and to show up at that appointment. Intensive case management models show promise in enhancing linkages to care for newly-diagnosed individuals.⁶

What other HIV prevention strategies work in health care settings?

Risk assessment. Assessing HIV risk behaviors should be a standard part of new patient intake, regardless of HIV status. In-depth HIV prevention education is not necessary for every patient. However, health care providers should ask all patients about their sexual behavior, condom use, number of sexual partners, and alcohol and illicit drug use to assess a patient’s risk for acquiring or transmitting HIV. These quick questions may lead to longer discussions and counseling about safer sex or alcohol and drug use practices.⁷ Drug treatment. Helping patients get into alcohol or drug treatment can be an effective HIV prevention tool⁸ and can help HIV-infected persons stay healthy. Health care providers can have a profound effect on patients’ lives by showing an interest in drug-using patients and encouraging willing patients to enter drug or alcohol treatment programs. Because relapse is common in treating addictions, health care providers should use a non-judgmental approach. Screening and treating for STIs. Providers should encourage screening for STIs. They should also provide STI education, emphasize the link between HIV and STIs, and encourage screening for partners.⁹

How does positive prevention work in health care settings?

Prevention counseling. Brief prevention counseling delivered in health care settings at every visit has been shown to decrease the likelihood that HIV-infected individuals transmit HIV to others, particularly if interventions are tailored to sub-populations of HIV-infected patients.¹⁰ Important messages include: helping people understand the relative risks of their actions and the effectiveness of different prevention strategies such as using condoms; disclosing HIV status to sex and drug using partners; and understanding their responsibility with regard to prevention. Formal provider training is important to facilitate these approaches.^11,12 Viral suppression. A unique component that health care settings play in HIV prevention is helping HIV-infected persons find and adhere to an effective ARV regimen to help keep their viral load low. Some research has demonstrated that keeping the viral load below a threshold that is detectable with lab tests can help prevent up to 60% of new STIs.¹³ New research suggests that effective detection of HIV and treatment to reduce the viral load could reduce the overall community viral load and have a population-level impact on HIV transmission.¹⁴

How can HIV prevention capacity be increased in health care settings?

Risk assessment. Knowing how to assess risk among patients is key to HIV prevention of any kind. Having risk assessment tools and training providers to use them is critical. Written protocols. It is important to make sure that procedures are in place to guide testing efforts in health care settings.¹⁵ Having a “prevention plan” tailored to the clinic size, the service delivery model, the types of providers and the patient population is critical. Leadership. Successful clinic programs often have identified staff leaders who function as counselors or team leaders for positive prevention.¹⁶ Training. Underlying all of these important components is training. Training can facilitate buy-in from clinic providers and can address provider attitudes and beliefs about risk reduction and counseling.¹⁷ Training should outline staff responsibilities and anticipate changes to clinic flow.¹⁶

What are effective models for use in health care settings?

Positive STEPs¹⁷ is a training intervention to help HIV care providers deliver prevention counseling to their patients. The model was effective in improving provider attitudes, comfort, self-efficacy and frequency of delivering prevention counseling. Partnership for Health¹⁸ is an EBI (CDC’s Effective Behavioral Intervention) for providers in HIV clinics. Medical providers are trained to deliver brief risk-reduction counseling to their patients. All clinic staff are trained to integrate prevention messages into the clinic setting, and counseling is supplemented with written information for all patients. The intervention was effective in reducing unprotected intercourse by 38% among patients who had two or more sexual partners. Positive Choice¹⁹ is an interactive “Video Doctor.” Patients at HIV clinics completed an in-depth computerized risk assessment and received tailored risk-reduction counseling from a “Video Doctor” via laptop computer and a printed educational worksheet. Providers received a Cueing Sheet on reported risks for discussion during the clinical encounter. Provider-Delivered Counseling.^10,16 In a large federal demonstration project, brief counseling messages delivered by primary care providers in clinic settings were most effective in reducing risk among HIV-infected patients, although there were also benefits in programs delivered by prevention specialists and HIV-infected peers.

What needs to be done?

Health care providers need more and repeated training on how HIV prevention can be integrated into the care they deliver. There are still significant misperceptions among health care providers about who should be tested for HIV and when to implement rapid testing. Provider attitudes, beliefs and self-efficacy can affect whether or not they address prevention through HIV testing or by providing risk-reduction counseling. Methods that enhance provider uptake of HIV prevention in health care delivery settings need attention and further research. Leaders in health care settings can establish written protocols that guide HIV prevention practices, including HIV testing in their clinics. Establishing protocols, documentation and quality assurance practices can enhance testing and prevention practices in all types of health care settings.

Says who?

1. Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings.Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2006;55:1-17. 2. Haukoos JS, Hopkins E, Byyny RL, et al. Patient acceptance of rapid HIV testing practices in an urban emergency department: assessment of the 2006 CDC recommendations for HIV screening in health care settings. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 2008;51:303-309. 3. Tepper NK, Farr SL, Danner SP, et al. Rapid human immunodeficiency virus testing in obstetric outpatient settings: the MIRIAD study. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2009;201:31-36. 4. Myers JJ, Modica C, Bernstein C, Kang M, McNamara K. Routine rapid HIV screening in six Community Health Centers serving populations at risk. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2009;24:1269–1274. 5. Branson BM. State of the art for diagnosis of HIV infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2007;15:S221-225. 6. Christopoulos K, Koester K, Weiser S, et al. A comparative evaluation of the development and implementation of three emergency department HIV testing programs (forthcoming) 7. Schechtel J, Coates T, Mayer K, et al. HIV risk assessment: physician and patient communication. Journal of General Internal Med. 1997;12:722-723. 8. Bruce RD. Methadone as HIV prevention: High volume methadone sites to decrease HIV incidence rates in resource limited settings. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2010;21:122-124. 9. McClelland RS, Baeten JM. Reducing HIV-1 transmission through prevention strategies targeting HIV-1-seropositive individuals. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2006;57:163-166. 10. Myers JJ, Shade S, Dawson Rose C, et al. Interventions delivered in clinical settings are effective in reducing risk of HIV transmission among people living with HIV. AIDS and Behavior. 2010;14:483-492. 11. Gilliam PP, Straub DM. Prevention with positives: A review of published research, 1998-2008. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care. 2009;20:92-109. 12. Harder & Co. Community Research. Prevention with positives: Best practices Guide. Prevention with Positives Workgroup. 2009. 13. Porco TC, Martin JN, Page-Shafer KA, et al. Decline in HIV infectivity following the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2004;18:81-88. 14. Das M, Chu PL, Santos G-M, et al. Decreases in community viral load are accompanied by reductions in new HIV infections in San Francisco. PLoS ONE. 2010;5:e11068. 15. Myers JJ, Steward, WT, Koester KA, et al. Written procedures enhance delivery of HIV “prevention with positives” counseling in primary health care settings. Journal of AIDS. 2004;37:S95-S100. 16. Koester KA, Maiorana A, Vernon K, et al. Implementation of HIV prevention interventions with people living with HIV/AIDS in clinical settings: Challenges and lessons learned. AIDS and Behavior. 2007;1:S17-S29. 17. Thrun M, Cook PF, Bradley-Springer LA, et al. Improved prevention counseling by HIV care providers in a multisite, clinic-based intervention: Positive STEPs. AIDS Education and Prevention. 2009;21:55-66. 18. Richardson J, Milam J, McCutchan A, et al. Effect of brief safer-sex counseling by medical providers to HIV-1 seropositive patients: A multi-clinic assessment. AIDS. 2004;18:1179-1186. 19. Gilbert P, Ciccarone D, Gansky SA, et al. Interactive “Video Doctor” counseling reduces drug and sexual risk behaviors among HIV+ patients in diverse outpatient settings. PLoS One. 2008;3.

Special thanks to the following reviewers of this Fact Sheet: Lucy Bradley-Springer, Kimberly Carbaugh, Mark Cichocki, Renata Dennis, Josh Ferrer, Mark Molnar, Quentin O’Brien, Jim Sacco. Reproduction of this text is encouraged; however, copies may not be sold, and the University of California San Francisco should be cited as the source. Fact Sheets are also available in Spanish. To receive Fact Sheets via e-mail, send an e-mail to [email protected] with the message “subscribe CAPSFS first name last name.” ©July 2010, University of CA. Comments and questions about this Fact Sheet may be e-mailed to [email protected].